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MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Received #4/ </o ^ / ri f

Accession No. ^ I

Given by

Place,

***No book op pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab-
oratory tuithout the permission of the Trustees.

UNITED STATES COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

P JL H T ■ III
REPORT

OK

THE COMMISSIONEK

i OB

1873-4 AND 1874-5.

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECREASE OF THE FOOD-FISHES.
B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES IX THE WATERS

OF THE UNITED STATES.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

187G.

United States Commission of Fisn and Fisheries,

Washington, February 20, 1875.

Gentlemen: In compliance with the order of Congress, I transmit
herewith my report for 1873-74 and 1871-75 as United States Commis-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries, embracing: first, the result of inquiries into
the causes of the decrease of the food-fishes of the sea-coast and lakes of
the Uuited States; and, secondly, the history of the measures taken for
the propagation of food-fishes by stocking the rivers and lakes with
shad, salmon, and other valuable species.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Commissioner.
Hon.. Henry Wilson,

President of the United States Senate; and
Hon. Jas. G. Blaine,

Speaker of the Ilousa of Representatives.

m

CONTENTS

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER.

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECEEASE OF THE FOOD-FISHES.

Page.

l. Investigations of 1873 vn

Reason for selecting Portland, Me., as base of operations VII

Assistance rendered by the Navy Department vn

The steam-tug Blue Light vii

Associates in the inquiry vm

Numbers of living forms found in the waters of the region vnr

Mackerel, cod, and herring fisheries viii

Fish-food viii

Biological researches IX

Ph ysical researches IX

Collections for scientific museums IX

List of visitors at Peak's Island station ix

Apparatus used on the Blue Light ix

The region southeast from Cape Elizabeth .• x

The region at the upper end of Casco Bay x

Proof of climatic changes on the northern Atlantic coast x

Assistance rendered by the United States Coast Survey X

The steamer Bache x

Assistance rendered by the Treasury Department XI

The revenue steamer McCulloch XI

The revenue steamer Chase XI

Assistance rendered by the Quartermaster Department of the Army XI

2. Investigations in 1874 xi

Reasons for selecting Noank, Conn., as base of operations XI

Assistance rendered by the Navy Department XI

The steam-tug Blue Light xi

General character of work prosecuted xi

Experiments in propagating sea-bass XII

Visit to shad-hatching station at Holyoke, Mass XII

Experiments in inuring embryo shad to sea-water XII

Shipment of shad to Germany XII

Discoveries of specie3 before unknown to the coast •- XHI

Associates in the inquiry xm

List of visitors to the Noank station xm

Special report to be made on invertebrates xiv

Cold currents Xiv

Assistance rendered by United States Coast Survey Xiv

The steamer Bache xiv

Experiment with preservatives XV

B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES.

3. Extent of the work xv

Regions benefited XV

The value of fish-propagation to China xvi

Reasons why the work cannot he left to State action xvi

The plan as regards the propagation of the shad xvi

Extent of the California-salmon work xvii

The possible resources of rivers xvn

The proposed introduction of the carp xvn

Former abundance of fishes XVII

V

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

4. The shad xvm

The hatching and distribution of 1874 xvni

The waters benefited in the United States xvni

The shipment to Germany t xvm

The hatching and distribution of 1875 : xvm

The Neuse River of North Carolina XIX

The Pamunkey River of Virginia XIX

The reconnaissance of the Potomac fisheries XIX

The stations and results on the Potomac . XIX

Distribution from Coeymans Landing, K. T., on the Hudson xix

Distribution from South Hadley Falls, Mass., on the Connecticut Kiver xix

Distribution from Point Pleasant, Pa., on the Delaware River xx

Review of the libors of the season .. XX

Experiments by Fred Mather and H. "W. "Welsher, with a view to transporting shad long

distances xxi

The shipment to Germany xxi

Experiments with a view to transporting shad in sea-water xxii

Experiments with a view to transporting shad of several inches length xxii

5. The California salmon xxii

Mr. Livingston Stone's operations in 1873 xxii

The final hatching of the eggs in eastern waters xxm

Mr. Livingston Stone's operations in 1874 xxm

Qualities of the California salmon xxiv

Observations of temperature in San Joaquin River xxv

Observations of temperature in McCloud River xxvi

Observations of temperature in Columbia River xxvi

Comparison of physical conditions of the rivers of the Atlantic elope and Gulf of Mexico

with Pacific streams xxvi

Distances which anadromoua species will travel inland xxvm

The great vigor of the California salmon xxix

The reasons for expectation of success in introducing California salmon in eastern waters. xxix

The great addition to the food resources xxx

6. The Atlantic salmon xxx

Mr. Atkins' operations in 1873-'74 and 1874-'75 xxx

The number of breeding salmon bought and manipulated xxxi

Marking the fish when released xxxi

Recapture of marked fish xxxi

7. The white fish xxxn

8. The caw of Eurofe xxxn

Its qualities and habits xxxn

Numerous domesticated varieties xxxm

The best varieties xxxv

Its artificial propagation xxxv

Localities in Europe where they are bred xxxv

Desirability of the carp for the United States XXXVI

9. The aquarium car xxxvii

The trip of 1873 xxxvn

The trip of 1874 XXXVII

10. Tables of distribution of food-fishes xxxvm

Tables of shad hatching and distribution xxxvm

Tables of California salmon distribution XL

Tables of Atlantic salmon distribution I xlv

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER.

The duties intrusted to the United States Commissioner of Fish .and
Fisheries, as established by joint resolution of the Senate and House of
Representatives of the United States the 9th of February, 1871, are two-
fold: first, an investigation into the cause of the decrease of the sea-
coast fishes and those of the rivers and lakes, with suggestions as to the
best methods of restoring the same; second, active measures looking
toward the propagation and multiplication of the useful food-fishes,
either by restocking depleted waters or by introducing desirable species
into new localities.

In tbe two reports already published will be found a history of the
measures adopted to accomplish these ends during the years 1871, 1872,
and the first half of 1873; and I now proceed to give the history of the
labors of the commission from July 1, 1S73, to July 1, 1875.*

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECREASE OF FOOD FISHES.

1. — INVESTIGATIONS IN 1873.

The labors of tbe Commission commenced at Wood's Hole, Massachu-
setts, in 1871, while the season of 1S72 was passed at Eastport, in tbe
Bay of Fundy. For the purpose of more completely developing the
economical and natural history of the coast of Maine, the chief seat of
the herring and cod fisheries, Portland was selected as a secoud station
in that State from which to prosecute the inquiries of the Commission
in 1873. Quarters were accordingly secured at Peak's Island, about
three miles from the city, where a wharf, with buildings, and good anchor-
age near by, furnished the necessary facilities.

The law of Congress authorizing the Commission instructs the heads
of all the Government departments to render it such assistance as may
be in their power; and, in obedience to this requirement, the Secretary
of the Navy granted the use of a stanch vessel of about 100 feet in
length and nearly one hundred tons burden, then stationed at the Wash-
ington navy-yard, and not required at the time for other purposes — the
steam-tug Blue Light. Commander L. A. Beardslee, of the U. S. Navy,

* The printing of tbo reports for tbe years 1873-4 and 1374-5 was ordered separately
by Congress; but no provision baving been made for extras, and unavoidable delays
baving occurred in tbe printing, it lias been thought best to publish tbe two in a

single volume.

VII

VIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

was placed in charge of the vessel, and a suitable crew furnished from
the navy-yard.

Various alterations were made in the vessel to better adapt her for the
purposes to which she was to be applied. A pilot-house was erected on the
upper deck, the old one being converted into a laboratory, and a small
donkey-engine placed on the forward part of the deck to work the
dredge and trawl. Leaving Washington in charge of her commander
on the 28th of June, the Blue Light reported at Peak's Island for duty
on the 8th of July. She proved to be everything that could be desired
for her purposes ; her light draught (about 7 feet) enabling her to run
into the bays and harbors along the coast, and her seaworthiness to go
off considerable distances to the outer banks. As on previous occa-
sions, Professor Verrill, of Yale College, took the more immediate-
charge of the researches into the invertebrates, while numerous special-
ists were also members of the party for a greater or less length of time,
among whom were Prof. Sidney J. Smith, of New Haven ; Prof. J. E.
Todd, of Tabor College, Iowa ; Prof. E. T. Nelson, of Delaware Col-
lege, Ohio ; Prof. E. N. Rice, of the Wesleyan University, Middletown ;
Dr. P. P. Carpenter, of Montreal ; Dr. J. B. Holder, of the American
Museum, Central Park, New York; Mr. G. Brown Goode, curator of
the museum of the University of Middletown, Conn. ; Prof. Theodore
Gill and Dr. E. Palmer, of Washington ; Mr. J. E. Thacher, of New
Haven ; Mr. C. B. Puller, of Portland ; Mr. Spencer F. Biddle, of Phila-
delphia, and others.

The work of investigation into the general and economical histoiwof the
fishes and other marine animals was prosecuted with unremitting energy,
and resulted in the acquisition of many important collections and ob-
servations. According to a rough estimate, 62 species of fishes, 130 of
articulates, 145 of worms, 215 of mollusks, 34 of radiates, 50 of acalephs,
30 of sponges, and 50 of plants, or about 750 in all, were identified ;
while the number of minute crustaceans, and other diminutive objects, re-
quiring further investigation, will probably amount to nearly as many more.
The present history and statistics of the mackerel, cod, herring, alewives,
menhaden, &c, was well worked out as far as peculiar to the coast.
The contents of the stomachs of all the fishes taken, under different
circumstances, were examined and recorded, and important generaliza-
tions reached as to the relationships between the fish, their food, and
the differing regions of the sea-bottom. Among other collections made
by the Commission were numerous specimens of a species of flounder,
Pleuronectes glaber, known heretofore by only a single specimen de-
scribed by Storer in his great work on the " Pishes of Massachusetts."

The collection of invertebrates embraced very many extremely inter-

' esting species, some of them entirely new, and others found for the first

time on this coast. Among these may be mentioned a species of Hya-

lonema, Holtenia, and some other very remarkable siliceous sponges which

have lately attracted much attention from naturalists. Some very rare

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. IX

radiates weie also secured, among them Comatida, Ccriantlius, Schiz-
aster, Astrogonhim, &c.

The opportunity was of course embraced to study the habits and
structures of the animals collected during the season and kept in aqua-
ria ; and the artist of the expedition, Mr. J. H. Emerton, made over 300
drawings of these from life mostly of species never before figured, ex-
cepting, possibly, a few from shriveled alcoholic specimens.

In addition to the biological researches, attention was paid to ques-
tions connected with the physics of the deep seas, this branch of the
work being more particularly under the direction of Captain Beards-
lee, the commander of the steamer. These consisted of a determina-
tion of the temperature of the surface-, median-, and bottom-water, at
numerous localities, and a daily record at the anchorage of the steamer
off Peak's Island. Specimens of the water were also brought up from
various depths and secured in well-sealed bottles for examination as to
specific gravity, chemical composition, and gaseous constituents.

As on previous occasions, the occasion was made use of by some of
the associates of the Commission and its visitors, to secure specimens for
various public museums, principally those of colleges, among others an
extensive collection was gathered by Dr. Holder for the American Muse-
um of Natural History, Central Park, New York. After the collections
have been thoroughly worked up a distribution of duplicates will be
made from the stock reserved by the Commission.

Among the numerous visitors to the headquarters of the commission
during its sojourn at Peak's Island, some of them members of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, attending its
meeting at Portland, were Dr. J. W. Dawson, of Montreal; Messrs.
Stilwell and Stanley, fish-commissioners of Maine ; Mr. C. G. Atkins, of
Bucksport ; J. W. Milner, of Waukegau, 111. ; Professor Atwater, of Mid-
dletown, Conn. ; Prof. Joseph Henry ; Captain Walker, United States
Navy ; Mr. E. B. Elliot ; Dr. T. M. Brewer, of Boston ; J. W. Harper,
of New York, and many others. Mr. W. C. Wyckoff, of the New York
Tribune, spent much time on the island in making himself familiar with
the operations of the Commission, embodying the results of his inqui-
ries in a series of illustrated letters published by the Tribune in connec-
tion with the report of the proceedings of the American Association as
one of its " lecture extras."

The Secretary of the Navy also visited the station, and spent several
days in examining the operations of the Commission.

As already mentioned, the success of the operations of the season of
1873 was very greatly facilitated by the service of the Blue Light and her
force. Special assistance was found in the steam-windlass for hoisting
the dredges and trawls; besides saving labor, this permitted more fre-
quent hauls in each day's excursion.

All the known forms of apparatus for deep-sea research were tried by
the commission, including a full series of that used on the Porcupine

XII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

men, many of them specialists in marine zoology, and others haviug a
general interest in the objects of the Commission. Daring the season
the Blue Light was continuously occupied on her trips, losing but little
time for repairs or other purposes. The principal points visited by her,
in addition to the waters adjacent to Noank, were Block Island, Gardi-
ner's and Peconic Bay, Montauk Point, the mouth of the Connecticut,
&c, a range of from thirty to forty miles from the starting-point.

Noank possesses special advantages for fishery inquiries, the inhab-
itants being engaged almost entirely in fishing, and a large number of
smacks being owned at that place, some of which are employed in fishing
off the Florida coast during the winter ; but which in summer are all oc-
cupied in the vicinity, or in trips to the outer banks. Every day numer-
ous cargoes of fish which were brought in for shipment to New York and
elsewhere, furnished the means of studying the species in their varying
condition of age and season. A full series was obtained for the collections
of the Commission, either for photographing or modeling in plaster.

Experiments were made toward the end of July, by Mr. Fred Mather,
in regard to the possibility of the artificial propagation of sea-bass
{Centroprisies atrarius), and a considerable number of eggs were success-
fully impregnated and placed in hatching-boxes. Unfortunately, how-
ever, it was found impossible without more extensive precautions than
we were prepared to adopt to properly protect the boxes against the
weather, and a severe storm at the end of July emptied the boxes
and ended the experiment. The experiment, however, will be again
tried, as it is believed that the process of artificial propagation is as
available for the reproduction of many of the sea-fishes as for those of
fresh water. Among these may be especially mentioned the sea-bass,
the tautog, the striped bass, the scup, &c.

On the 22d of July, I visited the Holyoke shad-hatchiug station of
the Commission, in charge of Mr. Milner, and found great activity pre-
vailing, and a very successful effort in connection with the distribution
of the fish.

On the 15th of August, Mr. Milner reached JSToank, accompanied by
Mr. Griswold, one of his assistants, for the purpose of testing the effect
of the introduction of young shad into salt water, the details of which
experiment will be found under the subject of " shad," and also in Mr.
Milner's special report on the subject. It may, however, be here stated
in general terms, that in adding salt water to the fresh in which the
fish were kept, it was found that up to a certain percentage the fish
were about as vigorous as in entirely fresh water, although a sudden
transfer from fresh to salt water resulted in their speedy death.

With a view of ascertaining the length of time during which shad
could be carried safely from one point to another, it was determined to
try the experiment of forwarding a number of young fish to Europe,
this answering the purpose of a test of the possibilities in the case. If
the experiment met with success, the favor of the German government

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XIII

in presenting to the United States a quarter of a million of the salmon
of the Rhine could be reciprocated. Messrs. Fred Mather and A. A.
Anderson were detailed for the purpose, and visited Noank on the begin-
ning of August to receive instructions, the steamer leaving New York on
the 5th of August, Unfortunately the experiment was a failure, the fish
dying a few days after the vessel left, These gentlemen returned to
Noank on the 11th of September for the purpose of presenting their
report. Full reference to this subject will be found under the head of
the subject of " Propagation of shad for 1874," and in an appendix, and
further allusion to it here is necessary only to renew the reference to the
great liberality of the North German Lloyd in granting free passage
to the two gentlemen mentioned above, with their freight, to Bremen
and return.

The steamer Blue Light went out of commission on the 9th of Sep-
tember, and was laid up, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Navy, at New London ; after which the work of the Commission was
prosecuted almost entirely by means of sail and row boats.

Many interesting discoveries were made in the way of additions of
previously unrecorded species on the coast, and in extending the area of
the distribution of others. A general sketch of the results, so far as
tbe invertebrates are concerned, will be found in an article by Professor
Yerrill.

The labors of the Commission at Noank extended over the months ot
July, August, and September. Professor Verrill and his party left early
in September, but the other divisions were occupied until the beginning
of October. Eemaining a few days to settle up the business of the
Commission, I left for Washington on the 8th of October.

The working party of the Commission, for the most part, consisted of
the following gentlemen : Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, in charge
of the dredging operations, and of the department of marine zoology,
with the exception of the fishes, having as special assistants Prof. S.
J. Smith, Mr. S. F. Clark, Mr. Turnbull, of Yale College, and Prof. N.
S. Eice, of Wesleyan University, Middletown.

The department of the fishes was under the direction of Mr. G.
Brown Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted by Mr. C. W.
Schuermann and T. H. Bean of Washington, and Mr. H. C. Chester.

The algologists were Prof. D. C. Eaton, of Yale College, and Dr. W.
G. Farlow,of Cambridge, assisted by Messrs. Livingston and Klaburger.
Prof. A. Hyatt, of the Society of Natural History, Boston, with Mr.
Eichard Eathburn, and Mr. Saltonstall, of Boston, were also members
of the party.

Among the visitors who devote more or less of their time to natural
history investigations, and who availed themselves of the material pro-
vided by the Commission, or who desired to become acquainted with its
methods, may be mentioned Dr. Joseph Leidy, Prof. Henry Chapman,
and Dr. Horatio Allen, of Philadelphia; Prof. D. C. Jordan, of India-

XIV EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

napolis ; Prof. F. W. Putnam, of Salem ; General A. B. Eaton, Dr. Theo-
dore Gill, and Dr. E. Bessels, of Washington ; Mr. W. C. Wyckoff, and
Dr. J. B. Holder, of New York ; Mr. O. S. Westcott, of Chicago ; Prof.
J. Hammond Trumbull, and Dr. W. O. Ayres, of Hartford; Mr. W. T.
Parker, and M. W. Humphrey, of West Meriden, Conn.

The State fish commissioners, or persons specially interested in fish-cul-
ture, visiting the station during the summer, were Messrs. Alfred Eead,
jr., Newton Dexter, and J. Barden, of Rhode Island ; Dr. M. C. Ed-
munds, of Vermont ; Dr. W. W. Fletcher, of New Hampshire ; G. C.
Anderson, of New Jersey ; Mr. J. W. Milner, Fred Mather, A. A. An-
derson, and C. D. Griswold, of the United States Fish Commission.

The results of Professor Verrill's labors, and those of his associates
in the department of marine natural history and plants, will be fur-
nished in a special report; although it may be proper here to state that
over one hundred species of invertebrates, new to the fauna of New
England, were secured, most of them northern species, and many unde-
scribed.

The principal localities over which dredgings were made were Fish-
er's Island Sound ; Block Island Sound ; off Block Island and south of
Montauk Point; the eastern part of Long Island Sound; from Fisher's
Island and Gardiner's Island to the mouth of the Connecticut River;
the shallow waters in the harbors and estuaries near Noank ; Gardiner's
Bay, Long Island ; Great Peconic and Little Peconic Bays and Green-
port Harbor, Long Island. These latter localities showed temperatures
much higher than the others, and furnished correspondingly southern
types of animal life.

It was clearly shown by the investigations of the Commission that
there is a very decided flow of cold currents through Fisher's Island
Sound and Block Island Sound into Long Island Sound, and along the
deeper parts of the latter for a great distance, especially toward the
southern and deeper side. The influence of this cold current is very
apparent as far west as New Haven in the deeper parts of the sound.
According to Professor Verrill its flowing into Long Island Sound is
due largely to the influence of the tidal currents modified by the local
wind-currents. On the other hand, the much higher temperature of
such inclosed localities as the Peconic Bays may be safely attributed to
the direct heat of the sun over a broad expanse of shallow water, from
which the cold currents are excluded.

As in previous years assistance was rendered by the Coast Survey in
carrying on operations at distances remote from the coast, and which
the Blue Light was not suited to reach. A part of the month of Sep-
tember was occupied by the steamer Bache, under command of Captain
Piatt, in dredging operations off the coast of Maine. The scientific
work was in charge of Dr. A. S. Packard, assisted by Mr. C. Cook and
Mr. Robert Rathburu. Dredgings at about forty stations were made off
the coasts of Maine and New Hampshire, at various depths, down to

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XV

125 fathoms. The results of this investigation will also be found in
Professor Verrill's report.

The attention of Professor Verrill and his party, especially of Prof.
TV. N. Rice, was directed to investigations as to the best method of
preserving the invertebrates for museum purposes, and to improved
methods for killing in an expanded state such species as usually con-
tract when placed in alcohol. In regard to the preservation of Actinia
very satisfactory results were obtained by slowly adding a saturated
solution of picric acid to a small quantity of sea-water in which they
had been allowed to expand. When fairly dead they were transferred
to a pure saturated solution of the acid and allowed to remain from one
to three hours, according to size. They were then placed in alcohol of
about GO to 70 per cent, for permanent preservation. The alcohol should
be renewed after a day or two, and this repeated until the water is all
absorbed from the specimen.

It was found that hydroids and most kinds of jelly-fishes can be easily
and beautifully preserved in the same way, but of these the specimens
may usually be placed alive directly in the acid of full strength. The
success with osmic acid was not so marked, the specimens contracting
more, and finally becoming so darkly stained as to render them useless.
Various trials were made with different kinds of drugs for the purpose
of killing marine animals in an expanded state, but no better method
was discovered than that of allowing them to suffocate in stale sea-water

B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES.
3. — EXTENT OF THE WORK.

The work of propagation and distribution of food-fishes has been en-
larged year by year. Applications have been received from all of the
States and from four Territories. This has necessitated a continual ex-
pansion of the plans for each season's work.

The work of the United States Fish Commission in multiplying use-
ful food-fishes was commenced in 1872, and has been prosecuted with
satisfactory results up to the present time.

The species to which special attention has been directed are the shad
(Alosa sapidissima,) fresh-water herring or alewive, (Pomolobus pseudo-
harengus,) striped bass or rock-fish (Boccus lineatus,) California salmon
(Salmo quinnat,) the salmon of Maine (Salmo salar,) land-locked salmon
(Salmo sebago,) white-fish (Coregonus albus,) and the carp (Cyprinus carpio
and var.,) each of these having special relations to certain portions of
the country, and promising in their anticipated aggregate an extremely
.important addition to the food-resources of the United States.

The States which have so far been the direct recipients of spawn and
young fish of more or less of these species are Maine, New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey. Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia,

XVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES

Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Lou-
isiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Utah, Nebraska, Colo-
rado, and California ; while other States, as Alabama and Arkansas,
which have not been the actual scene of the operations of the Coinniis-
sion, have been indirectly benefited by the introduction of fish into their
waters at points outside of the State limits, thrty-three States and two
Territories in all. The extension of the work to other States and its
amplification in all is only a question of time.

The operations of the Commission have, it is believed, given entire
satisfaction to the people at large, as shown by the general popularity
of the measures adopted, the great interest excited in the subject
throughout the country, and the appointmeut of State fish commissions
in nineteen States, in most instances for the purpose of directly co-oper-
ating with the United States Commission in its efforts to secure from
the waters their fullest yield of animal food. This has rightly been con-
sidered an object of the greatest importance in view of the rapidly-in-
creasing population of the United States and the almost corresponding
diminution in the average yield of vegetable food by the farming-lands,
and it is not considered exaggeration to say that the water can be made
to yield a larger percentage of nutriment, acre for acre, than the land.
A further evidence of the importance of this effort is shown by the
fact that China, with its enormous population, greater to the square
mile than that of any other part of the world, derives the largest por-
tion of its animal food from the interior waters of the empire, the meth-
ods of fish-cultivation there being conducted in a very efficient manner,
and every cubic yard of pond and stream thoroughly utilized.

It is well to bear in mind that the work prosecuted by the United
States Commission is in no case that which would be carried on by
State commissions or by private enterprise. The States of Iowa, Min-
nesota, Ohio, or Pennsylvania would not find their advantage in going
to any great expense in the way of stocking their streams in view of
the fact that the fish, when mature, would, on their return, enter the
mouth of the Mississippi and traverse all the intermediate States before
arriving within their borders, with the certainty that a large portion of
the catch would be secured by citizens of other States. On the other
hand, the young and immature fish, requiring the cold upper sources
of the streams as their home, will not find in the great waters of the
more Southern States the proper conditions for their preservation and
growth. Furthermore, the primary outlay for securing the eggs of such
species as the California salmon, &c, is greater than single States can
meet, while the cost of obtaining a supply for the entire country at a
siugle establishment is much less proportionately than the aggregate
cost of separate effort.

The plan as regards the propagation of shad is to establish hatch-
ing-camps in March on the southernmost streams on the Atlantic

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XVII

slope, there to hatch all the eggs that can be procured, and, placing a
portion of the young fish in the stream where they are procured, to
transmit the remainder to other waters now entirely unprovided. This
operation would be continued by removing the camps northward as the
season advanced until the Connecticut Kiver is reached, toward the end
of June, and from which the States along the Great Lakes, the Upper
Mississippi, and the Pacific coast would be supplied.

The California salmon is a species which can withstand the warmest
regions of the United States, and is extremely hardy and prolific, and
its multiplication is considered extremely important. Some idea of the
scale on which the work of the commission connected with this species
has been conducted can be formed from the fact that the eggs collected
during the season of 1875 at the United States establishment on the
Upper Sacramento numbered about 11,000,000, with a bulk of 80 bush-
els, and weighing, with the packing in which they were transported to
eastern establishments, nearly 10 tons.

In further illustration of the results that may be looked for from a
judicious and systematic prosecution of the work of propagating the
food-fishes, we may refer to the Potomac Biver, in which from six to ten
million pounds of shad and herring are taken during the spring months
alone. There is no reason why any stream in the United States having,
direct communication with the Gulf of Mexico, or either ocean, may
not be made to abound in an equal degree with these and other fishes,,
and in view of the aggregate of the animal food to be derived from a,
number of such streams, the importance of this work can hardly be
overestimated.*

Another fish to which it is proposed to devote the efforts of the Com-
mission is the European carp, a species eminently calculated for the
warmer waters of the country, especially the mill-ponds and sluggish,
rivers and ditches of the South. This fish has been domesticated, for
thousands of years, and is one of the species which furnish the prin-
cipal food of the Chinese. Living on vegetable matter instead of animal,,
it can be multiplied at very little expense in 'restricted) waters.

It is not alone to the introduction of suitable fishes into water pre-
viously uninhabited by them that the efforts of the Commission are
directed, but also toward restoring a full supply to streams where they
were formerly abundant. At one time all the rivers on the Atlantic

* Large, however, as is the present yield of " herring" and shad in the Potomac River
it is hut a mere fraction of that which prevailed less than fifty years ago. Martin's-
Gazetteer of Virginia and the District of Columhia, published in 1835, states that the
number of fisheries on the Potomac in the previous year was 150, and that in six
weeks' time 22,500,000 shad and 750,000,000 herring were taken in this river. Allow-
ing an average of three pounds for each of the shad and three-fourths of a pound
to the herring, we have the enormous aggregate of 630,000,000 pounds of food taken
in a single river in six weeks' time alone, not including the immense quantity of striped
bass or rock-fish, sturgeon, and other fish that doubtless belonged to the catch. These
statistics, large as they appear, are corroborated by the older fishermen of the Poto-
mac— S. F. B.
F — II

XVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

coast abounded in shad and furnished an enormous aggregate of food,
sufficient for several months' supply to the inhabitants, and allowing a
surplus for shipment, either fresh or salted. Now, however, this condi-
tion has become a matter of tradition in regard to nearly every stream
south of the Potomac, and nothing but artificial propagation will restore
the stock. When, however, we bear in mind that the eggs of a single
pair of shad, artificially treated, can be made to produce more young
fish than those of two hundred pairs of natural spawners, the impor-
tance of the measures adopted by the Commission will be readily appre-
ciated.

4. — THE SHAD.

The hatching and distribution of shad began rather late in 1874, as
the appropriation for the purpose was not available early enough for
work in southern rivers. In the last week of June Mr. Milner proceeded
with a force of men to the hatching-station of the New York commis-
sioners, at Coeymans Landing on the Hudson Eiver, from which point
the distribution to western waters was at once begun. Four hundred
thousand shad were placed in the tributaries of the Mississippi, in the
Brazos and Colorado Bivers of Texas, and the tributaries of the great
lakes. On the 3d of July the traveling parties moved to South Hadley
Falls, Mass., on the Connecticut Eiver. From this station over two
millions of shad were transferred to the tributaries of the Mississippi, of
the great lakes, Lake Champlain, and rivers of New England. Five
hundred and sixty-five thousand fry were carried above the clam and
placed in the Connecticut Eiver, for the most part above Bellows Falls,
Vermont. In all, three million and thirty-one thousand young shad
were planted in waters of the United States between June 25 and Au-
gust 15 of 1874.

Those in charge of the transfers were very successful in transporting
these fishes and in placing them, in a healthy condition, in the waters
for which they were destined.

The generous action of Germany in the gift to the United States, in
1873, of 250,000 salmon-eggs prompted an attempt to transport some
young shad to Germany, and the North German Lloyd Steamship
Company kindly offering free passage for both men and fish to Bremen
and back, the experiment was entered upon early in August. On the
5th of August Mr. Fred Mather and Mr. A. A. Anderson left by the
steamer Donau, captain Neiuaber, with 100,000 shad-embryos, a large
and convenient compartment was assigned for them, and the cans were
so arranged that the movement of the ship need not affect the shad, while
an abundance of Croton water was taken on board for their use. Un-
fortunately, after six days the fish showed signs of distress and in ten
days they were all dead.

A detailed account of the trip will be found in Mr. Mather's report.
Excepting in this instance every shipment was a complete success.

Shad-hatching in 1875 was commenced April 1. The first efforts

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XIX

were on the Neuse Eiver, Forth Carolina. A camp was established by
Mr. Milner at Kinstou, in the vicinity of three fisheries, which was con-
tinued until May 10. The river was exceedingly high during the whole
time. Continued fishing was not begun until April 14, when the water
had lowered sufficiently for seiue-hauling. The catch was very light,
and no spawners were found.

On the 12th of May a camp was made near Fish-Haul, on the Pamunky
Eiver, Virginia, and some fifty thousand eggs impregnated, but the ova
not thriving well the station was continued only ten days, with results
of no consequence.

On the 27th of April a reconnaissance of the fisheries of the Potomac
was made in the steam-tug Triana, United States Navy, Captain Cook,
kindly placed at my disposal by the Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Milner
directed the trip, the commissioners of Virginia and Maryland being
members of the party. The results secured by this reconnaissance were
an intimate knowledge of the fisheries, the selection of favorable hatch-
ing-stations, and thesecuring of a collection of the fishesof the river,while
the good will of the fishery proprietors was sought for the purpose of
facilitating the obtaining of eggs at the fisheries. A full report of the
expedition will be found in the appendix.

Stations were established on the Potomac at Free-Stone Point, Va., at
the Virginia end of Long Bridge, and, later, at Moxley Point, Md., and at
Ferry Landing, Va. The work lasted from May 15 to June 5, and about
4,885,000 shad were released in the Potomac Eiver. The season at the
fisheries was a poor one. The protracted cold weather of the spring
retarded the ripening of the ova, and the eggs did not thrive well in the
cold w r aters after they were taken from the fish. In an ordinary season
a much larger number of young shad would have been placed in the
water as the result of such effort. Still this is to be considered as
very fair success if compared with the hatching of 1873, which yielded
only 1,370,400 shad for the Potomac, and 70,000 shipped to waters of
Virginia and West Virginia.

The season having closed in the region just referred to, traveling par-
ties proceeded to the Hudson Eiver, arriving on the 11th of June, when
the work of 'distribution began. Shipments were made from here. to
four important tributaries of the Mississippi, and to the Colorado Eiver
of Texas, of about 425,000 young shad.

On the 1st of July operations commenced at South Hadley Falls,
Mass. The first shipment was started on the 7th of July, between
which date and the 31st, transfers were made to waters in the Mississippi
Valley, Lake Champlain, to the Atlantic Slope rivers, and the rivers of
the Gulf States. As a general summary of the work at this station, it
may be stated that the waters of New England other than the Connecti-
cut Eiver received 320,000 shad ; there were carried westward and
southward, 590,000 ; carried above the Holyoke Dam to the Upper Con-
necticut, 1,205,000; hatched and put in below the dam, 4,500,000; sent
to Germany, 400,000. Total, about 7,000,000.

XX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

From Point Pleasant, Pa., shipments were made of about 200,000 shad,
on July 8, to the headwaters of the Eoauoke, in Virginia, and to the
Pearl Eiver, of Mississippi and Louisiana.

The entire number of shad hatched out during the season was over
12,500,000. The accompanying tables give the facts pertaining to their
distribution. Preference was given this year to the Mississippi waters
and the rivers of the Atlantic and Gulf slopes. The only shipments to
the tributaries of the lakes were to those of Lake Champlain.

In reviewing the labors of the season, it may be remarked that no suc-
cess was had in southern waters, the stock of fishes being greatly re-
duced and the hauls small, and consequently ripe male and female fish
are rarely obtained at the same time. The Potomac, although the
season's catch was very much diminished, afforded a larger quantity of
eggs, but it would appear to be at a disadvantage when compared with
the Hudson or the Connecticut for obtaining spawn.

The head of the present migration of the shad in the Connecticut is
the Holyoke Dam. For a half mile below the dam, the water is shoal
and runs among projecting rocks. Just below the Holyoke Bridge is a
deep and wide area of the river, into which the shad congregate to
spawn. This is the seiuiug-ground, and offers probably the best facili-
ties for obtaining shad -ova of any locality in the United States.

In the Hudson the upper spawning-grouud is near Coeymaus Landing,
where a long projecting point shelters a large bayou or arm of the river.
About twenty miles above this is the Troy dam, which, until the fish-
way was erected, was an effectual obstruction to the fishes, but for
some reason few shad go above Coeymaus. So well recognized is this
habit, that the occasional shad found above the Coeyman's spawning-
ground are termed gipsies. This station of the New York commission
is established at the spawning-grounds, where plenty of ripe fish are to
be obtained during the season.

The Potomac has no extensive seiuing-ground above the end of Long
Bridge. Small seines, pound-nets, and skim-nets are used to the very
foot of the falls, but no hauls are made sufficiently large to warrant a
hatching station with the probability of takiug ripe males and females
at.each haul above the Jackson City fishery. In fact, the spawning-
ground does not concentrate at any one point, but is found along the
river at nearly all the shad seining grounds. This compels a multipli-
cation of stations, and the past season eggs were obtained from Free
Stone Point, Ferry Landing, and the end of Long Bridge, Virginia, aud
from Moxley Point, Maryland, and in fact it would be worth while to
test any fishery where there was sufficient shelter for the hatching-boxes
from the effect of wind and sea. The Ferry Landing fishery afforded
the largest number of eggs in, 1875, although the time occupied was
shorter than at some of the other localities.

Hoping to favorably solve the problem as to the possibility of carrying
young shad alive across the Atlantic Ocean, in which a failure was experi-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXI

enced in 1874, a shipment was determined upon during 1875, and the
preliminary experiments were first begun at Washington under the care
of Mr. Fred Mather, who made the attempt the previous year. Among
the apparatus devised by this gentleman was a cylinder of tin hung
upon gimbals, as would be necessary at sea. Within the cylinder was
a screen a few inches from the bottom* A current of water flowed
through a rubber hose into an inlet in the bottom of the cylinder, and,
rising through the screen, overflowed at the top. No success, however,
was obtained with this contrivance, and Mr. Mather proceeded to Point
Pleasant, Pa., to renew his experiments at the shad-hatching station
near that point.

A new device, however, was finally hit upon, the suggestion of Mr.
Charles Bell, Mr. Mather's assistaut. Instead of a cylinder, a funnel-
shaped vessel was made, the bottom above the inlet being guarded by
a wire screen only 2 inches in diameter. The eggs were put into the fun-
nel, and the flow of the water up through the small end lifted them toward
the surface repeatedly as they fell back toward the bottom. Mr. Mather
reported his experiments with this arrangement as entirely satisfactory,
and recommended it for the Atlantic trip, as will be seen from his report
in the appendix.

At Coeymans Landing experiments for a similar purpose were begun
about June 15, by Mr. W T elsher, who, before they were completed, associ-
ated with him Mr. Monroe A. Green. In these the eggs were taken soon
after impregnation and put into a series of flannel screens, which were
adjusted in a case in the same manner as a case of drawers. In the
upper screen was a quantity of ice, the water from which dripped upon
the screens below. By this process the eggs were successfully retarded
about seven days, and then hatched out as vigorous fishes. Mr. Welsher
haviug auuouuced the success of his experiment in advance of Mr.
Mather's completing his, he was called upon^ to take charge of the trip
across the ocean.

About four hundred thousand eggs were taken and impregnated by Mr.
Monroe A.Green, on the night of the 10th of July. These were all se-
lected eggs, the lighter ones from each fish having been flowed out of the
impregnating pans and only the heavier superior ones retained. The
screens were filled, and the cases with a large quantity of broken ice
placed in contact with them, packed in turners' shavings. The ship-
ment started from New York on the steamer Mosel, Captain Neinaber,
the 17th of July. The purpose was to carry the eggs in the cases for
six or .seven days, and then remove them to tin vessels devised by Mr.
Green, when they were expected to hatch and the embryos to remain
until deposited in the Weser. This hatching-apparatus was a tin fun-
nel, quite similar in form to Messrs. Bell and Mather's ; but, instead of
the flow of water and movement of the eggs by a stream of water, air
was forced in from below ; the bubbles, forcing the water upward in a
current diverging along the outward sloping sides of the funnel, raised

XXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the eggs with a cloud of miuute bubbles of air. Nine of these funnels
were provided with rubber hose leading to an air-reservoir filled by an
air force-pump. Unfortunately, however, on opening the cases after
getting under way, the eggs were found to have suffered from railroad
jolting, and they all rapidly died before any were hatched or even the
eye-specks had begun to show.

At the end of the season at South Hadley Falls, Mass., Mr. Milner
arrived atlSoank, bringing with him about 45,000 shad, when experiments
were carefully made in attempting to accustom shad to small proportions
of sea- water. For this purpose, earthen jars with a capacity of about four
gallons were used. The object in view was to ascertain the effect of a
very gradual increase of sea- water. The jars received a continually- in-
creasing proportion of sea water, until, in two of the tests, it became all
sea-water. In the other two experiments, it was allowed to reach a cer-
tain proportion and so remain. Other jars were assigned for tests of the
effect of different temperatures upon the fish. It was found that shad
placed directly in sea-water die very rapidly, but that sea-water intro-
duced gradually and in small proportions has not a sensibly injurious
effect. The decision, however, was against its use, unless with extreme
caution and in very small quantities, wheu it is absolutely necessary for
purifying stale water. Later in the season, Mr. Chas. D. Griswold ex-
perimented with partially-grown shad taken at Holyoke, Mass. The re-
sults showed far less advantage in the transportation of the older shad;
the numbers that could be carried were but a minute fraction of the
large numbers of embryos usually transported, while in most instances
they did not survive as long as the younger fish.

5. — CALIFORNIA SALMON.

Mr. Livingston Stone arrived at the McCloud River station and began
operations August 6, 1873. A pen, or corral, was built in the river, but
it was found to be too small, the fish not retaining their vigor, while a
large proportion of those confined in the inclosure died. The seine was
again resorted to, aud sufficient salmon taken to make up the prescribed
quota of 2,000,000 eggs. The hatching establishment was moved to the
bank of the river, and the water raised by a bucket-wheel turned by the
current.

The eggs were packed in moss in boxes two feet square by one foot
deep, each containing 75,000 eggs. Two boxes were put into a crate,
with a space on all sides, which was packed with hay aud broken ice.
When ready for shipment, there were about 2,000,000 in good con-
dition. The first lot, 300,000, was shipped September 20, 1873 ; a second
lot, 500,000, on the 30th ; a third lot, 330,000, October 7th, and a fourth
lot, 250,000, on the 14th. A fifth lot, 20,000, was placed directly into
the McCloud River on the 19th of October, and 500,000 were left to
hatch. The total was 1,900,000 salmou-eggs.

The consignees who received the eggs and arranged for their care in

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIII

the hatching-houses where they were carried forward until the young
fish were placed in the waters, with the number of eggs to each,
were as follows: J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J., 550,000; James
Duffy, Marietta, Pa., 170,000; Seth Green, Rochester, N. Y., 200,000;
B. G. Pike, Middletowu, Conn., 150,000; Livingston Stone, Charles-
town, N. H., 50,000; E. A. Brackett, Winchester, Mass., 50,000 ; Charles
G. Atkins, Bucksport, Me., 50,000 ; George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich.,
120,000 ; A. P. Bockwood, Salt Lake City, Utah, 40,000 ; Dr. W. A.
Newell, San Francisco, Cal., 20,000. The 500,000 for the Sacramento
waters were hatched at the station. Some of the cases of eggs arrived
in excellent condition, while many were fouud to have heated and fer-
mented, with but a small proportion of the eggs in a healthy condition.
The number of fishes reported by the State commissiouers as resulting
from the 1,900,000 eggs was 1,522,930, the distribution of which is given
in detail in the appended table.

Mr. Stone began operations at the McCloud station on the 5th of July,
1874. Modifications in the apparatus used were effected which resulted in
a great improvement of the condition of the eggs. The trays in the
hatching-boxes were quite deep, and the eggs put into them in twelve
layers; the water rising from below in the Williamson troughs buoyed
the eggs so that the lower layers did not suffer from the weight of those
above them. By this means space was economized and a very large
number of eggs cared for. The corral, or pen, of the previous year was
also improved upon. A substantial timber grating was built across
the stream somewhat in the style of that used by Professor Basch
in the fiords of Norway. Below the fence large corrals, or pens,
were erected, into which the salmon were gathered and retained until
their spawn was needed. The grating was an entire bar to the salmon,
no opening being left to permit their passing above it ; and the experi-
ment satisfied Mr. Stone that salmon which ascend the river to spawn
never return to the" sea. The number which had passed above the grat-
ing before it was finished, he estimated at hundreds of thousands, while
thousands crowded against its lower side when completed, vainly at-
tempting to pass. As to their return, he failed to discover a single live
salmon, though thousands of dead ones lodged against the upper side of
the grating.

The work of developing the eggs to the point of hardiness requisite
for their safe shipment, was continued until the 25th of September, when
the first shipment was made. On the 18th of October, the sixth and
last shipment was made. The whole number transmitted eastward
was 4,155,000, which with 850,000 hatched at the station for California
waters, make a total of 5,005,000. There were reported from these
2,908,710 fishes distributed, and 25,000 eggs remaining to be heard
from. November 30, the last of the fishes was placed in the waters of
the McCloud and the camp closed for the season. The details of the
distribution will be found in the accompanying table.

XXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The California salmon, believed to be the same as the quinnat salmon
of the Columbia River (Salmo quiimat, Rich,) is one of the largest of this
family. Its average weight in the Sacramento River is 20 pounds, while
in overgrown individuals it is as high as 100 pounds. Its flavor when
fresh and properly cooked is scarcely inferior to that of the Atlantic
coast salmon {Salmo salar,) and in the markets of California and as
far eastward as New York it is sought as a luxury, and commands
a high price. Prepared in cans it finds a wide market throughout the
United States and in Australia.* It is by far the most prolific fish on
the Pacific coast. Of an anadromous habit, it swarms up the Colum-
bia, the Sacramento, and San Joaquin Rivers in vast shoals from March
to August, and thus becomes valuable not merely as an occasional article
of table luxury, but as a large commercial resource. Statistics pub-
lished in the weekly Astorian, Astoria, Oreg., for the season of 1875 on
the Columbia River, give 13,000,000 pounds as the»aggregate put up at
the different canning establishments, which sold at the average whole-
sale rate of eleven cents per pound, making a total money value of
$1,430,000. Besides the sale of the fish as food the manufacture of oil
from the heads has been begun, and this season a single fishing locality
produced 9,000 gallons.

Statistics procured from the books of the Central Pacific Railroad
Company show that 4,079,025 pounds of salmon were shipped from
points on the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers between November 1,
1874, and August 1, 1875. (See report of California commissioners,

P- HO

The species has proven itself thus far to be the best adapted of the

family to the methods of artificial propagation. When properly packed
and kept at a sufficiently low temperature the eggs endure transporta-
tion with inconsiderable loss. Once in the hatching-troughs the loss is
very small before hatching, while the young are. possessed of great
tenacity of life, and grow to be several months old with less loss than
hns been experienced with any other species; indeed, they are com-
mended by all the fish -culturists who have had to do with them for
their hardiness, activity, and good-feeding tendencies. In the mature
stage they are capable of adapting themselves to a variety of conditions.
They pass up the Sacramento when its waters are turbid from the great
quantities of sediment washed into them by the rains and the extensive

* Au item published in several of the newspapers of the United States hns a tendency
to excite prejudice against canned salmon as food. It appeared under the heading
"Poisoned by eating canned salmon," and stated that part of a can had been partaken
of by several persons who experienced no unpleasant results, but that after two days
the remainder of the contents of the can which had been set aside and exposed to the
air, being again eaten of by the same persons, purging and strong symptoms of poison-
ing resulted. The fact that such large quantities of the article are consumed through-
out the country with but a single instance of any ill effects suggests the possibility of
something else than the salmon as a cause for the sickness — the accidental mixture,
perhaps, of some deleterious article with the salmon before it was served.

KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXV

hydraulic mining operations along the banks of the river and its tribu-
taries; they go up through the warm valley of the San Joaquin River,
lying in the second hottest summer area of the United States, in
large shoals, ascending the numerous side tributaries to their spawning-
grouuds. The hottest temperature area for the months of June, July,
and August, as shown by the temperature charts for the United States,
lately compiled for the Smithsonian Institution, is the region of the
Gila and mouth of the Colorado Rivers in Arizona Territory. The mean
for these mouths is 88° Fahrenheit. The valley of the San Joaquin,
portions of Arizona, and the lower valley of the Rio Grande River have
a mean of 84°. No other portion of the United States has so high a
summer mean. During the mouths of August and September, 1875,
temperature observations were made at the railroad bridges of the Cen-
tral Pacific Railroad.* The maximum, minimum, and mean tempera-
tures for the months of August and September were as follows :

Maximum.

Minimum.

Mean.

Upper crossing

Air

o
107
84
83
93
82
81

82
74
73
73
72
71

98.7

Water at surface

79.7

Water at bottom

78.7

Lower crossing

Air

86.9

Water at surface

76.3

Water at bottom

76.3

As referred to by Mr. Milner in a communication to the commissioners
of fisheries at their meeting in New York, February 10, 1875, the Sac-
ramento salmon, and especially the colony entering the San Joaquin
River, spawn in latitudes farther south than any anadromous species of
the genus Salmo. t

In the report of the commissioners of fisheries of the State of Califor-
nia, for the years 1874 and 1875, the following statement is made with
reference to the Sacramento salmon : " Large numbers pass up the San
Joaquiu River for the purpose of spawning in July and August, swim-
ming for one hundred and fifty miles through the hottest valley in the
State, where the temperature of the air at noon is rarely less than 80°
Fah., and often as high as 105°, and where the average temperature of
the river at the bottom is 79° and at the surface 80°. The salmon of
the San Joaquin appear to be of the same variety as those in the Sac-
ramento, but average smaller in size." Leaving the bed of the San
Joaquin, they ascend the tributaries, the Merced, the Stanislaus, and
others, and find their spawning-grounds in the snow-fed sources of these

# A series of observations were made on the temperature of the San Joaquin River,
California, through the kindness of Mr. B. B. Redding, of Sacramento, commissioner
for fisheries of California.

t The trouts, Sahno fontinaJis, Mitch., in the Appalachian range, and Salmo pleuriticw,
Cope, of the headwaters of the Rio Grande River, extend their range to about the same
latitude, 37° N, as the San Joaquin salmon.

XXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

streams. The mean temperature for the Sacramento for July, said to
be of ten years' observations, is given at 74°.G6.*

The temperature for the McCloud River was observed between the
Gth of July and the 12th of November, 1874, at 6 a. in., 3 p. m., and 6
p. m. by Mr. Livingston Stone, the maxima, minima, and means of which
will be found in the following table :

Temperature, air and water, at McCloud River hatching-station.

*** llg;

Aug-t \ii«*»i\

September... jgjg;

O^ober {|1 days;

November... J j^ays;

67 observations
73 observations

87 observations
86 observations
78 observations
77 observations

88 observations
91 observations
30 observations
28 observations

Air or
water.

Air .. .
Water
Air . . .
Water
Air...
Water
Air . . .
Water
Air . ..
Water

Maximum.

o

106
62
97
60

100
58
96
55
58
50

Minimum.

48
54
43
52
37.
49
35
42
35
42

Mean.

76.4

57

70.7

55. 9

67.8

51.1

56.56

49.8
48.4
46. 89

Observations of the temperatures of the Columbia River have beeu
kindly furnished by the firm of the Oregon Packing Company, J. W. &
!N. Cook, proprietors. These were made in the mouths of May, June,
July, and August, 1S75, at 7 a. m. and 12 m. The results are shown in
the following table :

Water.

May, 22 days ; 44 observations

June. 26 days ; 52 observations . . .
July, 27 days ; 54 observations - . .
August, 12 days ; 24 observations

Water
Water
Water
Water .

Maximum. Minimum

56
61

70
70

Mean.

o

o

50

46.2

55

58.3

60

66.2

65

66.8

By this series of temperatures, which exhibits the maxima, minima,
and means of the waters where the fish have their natural home, we are
enabled to judge as to the" degree of warmth they may be expected to
endure when transported to new waters. The testimony as to the
warmth of the San Joaquin water is the most important, reaching,
as it does, a maximum of 84°, and showiug a mean of nearly 80° daring
the two months the salmon are ascending in large numbers. But the
high temperature is not the only seeming trouble they encouuter. Ac-
cording to the observer at the San Joaquin bridge, the water was very
turbid at the time it was so warm, yet the salmon, passing up in large
numbers, appeared in the clear waters of the tributaries higher up in a
healthy, vigorous condition.

Taking into consideration the temperature, the turbidity, the volume,
the velocity, and the characters of the sources, as well as the other
physical conditions of the rivers inhabited by the California salmon, it
seems probable that a very large number of the rivers of the Eastern

* Proceeding of the Agassiz Institute, Sacrameuto, California. Annual address and
report on physics, &c, of Sacramento River, by Thomas M. Logan, M. D., president,
October 20, 1873.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXVII

United States are equally adapted for the production and growth of this
species.

On the Atlantic slope, there are few if any rivers as turbid as the Sac-
ramento ; few which have not spring sources iu the Appalachian range,
aud among their tributaries many rapids, pools, and eddies, in rocky and
gravelly places, suitable for spawning-grounds. Of the rivers of the
Gulf States, the Chattahoochee and the Alabama have their sources in
the southern slopes of the Blue Eidge, among cool, spring-fed brooks.
They rise among hills and rocks in a country full of large springs. The
Brazos and Colorado Bivers, of Ttxas, have their sources among the
springs of the southern hills and spurs of the Bocky Mountains, and the
Guadalupe and San Antonio Bivers are fed by large springs. Most of
the Texas streams are turbid, but not more so thau the Sacramento or
San Joaquin.

The suggestion that the salmon are not likely to find suitably cold
waters after descending to the sea, the following facts show to be
groundless.

The temperatures of the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico have been
recorded* through a series of lines extending from the lougitude of
the mouth of the Mississippi to the Tortugas and Key West, Fla., and
temperatures found equally as cold as those off the coast of Massachu-
setts aud New England. As low as 34° Fahrenheit has been observed
at a depth of 896 fathoms ; at depths of 421, 610, aud 790 fathoms, 35°
and 3G° were observed, while 40°, 41°, and 42° were common at from 400
to over 1,800 fathoms, and 50° to 60° between less than 100 to 400
fathoms and more.

The only peculiarity especially notable in the streams to which the
California salmon belong is that they are snow-fed during most of the
year. As, however, the Maine salmon, a species much more sensitive
to heat than that of California, inhabits rivers not snow-fed, and more-
over is kept in the Bucksport breeding-pond throughout the entire sum-
mer at a temperature of 70°, we have a sufficient guarantee that the
California fish will not be affected in its transfer; indeed, the whole
question is one relating to the rapidity of development of the eggs, rather
than to the conditions surrounding the fish ; the warmer the water the
more rapid and premature the birth of the embryo.

Thus far we have left entirely out of consideration the great system
of waters contributing to the Mississippi Biver. The main stream ex-
tends from latitude 47° 50' to 29°, and the northernmost tributary of
the Missouri as far north as 50°. Its greatest length is 2,616 miles,t
from its highest source to the Gulf. From the source of the Madison
Fork, the formerly-supposed head of the Missouri, (within the National
Yellowstone Park,) to the Gulf, it has a length of 4,194 miles.t

* Coast Survey reports.

t See measurements iu tables on page 91 of the Physics and Hydraulics of the Missis-
sippi River. Uuited States Engineer Bureau.

XXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The Mississippi River, with its tributaries and subtributaries, as laid
down on the larger maps of the United States, exhibits over 120,000
miles of combined lengths,* which we know falls much within the extent
of waters available for food-fishes ; and, were the system of the Chinese
adopted, all waters would be considered down to the brooks, pouds, and
eveu ditches.

From this an idea may be formed of the vast work to be done in mak-
ing the waters of the United States afford their proper quota of the food-
resources of the future.

The physical conditions of the Mississippi River in contrast with the
rivers of the Atlantic coast which contain or have contained the Atlan-
lic salmon (Sahno salar) are very marked. Such streams as the Saint
John of New Brunswick, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Andros-
coggin of Maine, the Merriinac of New Hampshire, and the Connecticut
of Western New England are, for their greater lengths, clear and with
rocky bottoms, with considerable fall, and with sources, in the longest,
not more than 500 miles from the sea.

The Lower Mississippi is a turbid, alluvial stream, with a fall of less
than 5 inches to the mile for eighteen hundred miles from the Gulf. The
nearest source, having an elevation of 3,000 feet, is near the head of the
Red River, about 1,500 miles from the delta. Fort Atkinson, Kansas, on
the Arkansas River, has an elevation of 2,331 feet, 1,750 miles from the
mouth of the Mississippi River.

The remoteness of the elevated cold sources of the Mississippi seems
to be its most unfavorable feature when viewed as to the adaptation
of salmon to its waters. The California salmon traverse the Sac-
ramento Valley to the headwaters of the Little Sacramento and the
McCloud Rivers, about four hundred miles, to the headwaters of the
San Joaquin, about two hundred and fifty miles. To Fort Boise, on the
Snake River, where the Salmo quinnat are said to have been taken from
the mouth of the Columbia River, is about seven hundred miles. There
is no hindrance to their ascent to the vicinity of the Shoshone Falls, one
hundred and fifty miles above Fort Boise, which would increase the
distance from the Pacific Ocean to about eight hundred and fifty miles.
The great Shoshone Falls of the Snake River, over two hundred feet
high, are of course an effectual barrier to their progress up the stream.
In the report of the commissioners of Iowa,t a correspondent writing
from Elko, Nev., says: "This stream is one of the many that form the
headwaters of the Columbia River, and to this point, eighteen hundred

miles from its mouth, the salt-water salmon come in myriads to spawn."

* —

* A rough approximation made by running a chartometer on the Land-Office map,

and correcting tbe error by comparison of lengtbs of seventeen rivers given in the

work just referred to.
t First Report of tbe State Fisb Commissioners of Iowa for tbe years 1874 and 1875.

Des Moines : R. P. Clarkson, State Printer, 1876, p. 17

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIX

The large King salmon, or chowichee,* and the Red salmon, hoikoh,t
are, according to Mr. Dall, taken as far up the Yukon River as Fort
Yukon, fourteen hundred miles from the sea.

The shad of China, samlai (Alosa rtevesii, Rich.,) according to Mr. Salter,
extend their migrations up the Yang-tse-Idaug for over a thousand
miles; and, according to Dr. MacGowan, to a distance of three thou-
sand miles from its mouth.

A specimen of a shad (Alosa sapidissima) was received at the National
Museum from Mr. R. O. Sweeney, which was taken in the Mississippi
River at Saint Paul, Minn.

From these facts we may infer that the instinct of location is probably
sufficient to attract a colony of fishes as far inland as the headwaters of
the longest river, whenever their home has been once established there.

The vigorous strength and the energy exhibited by the California
salmon during its migrations up the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers,
afford the evidence that its capacity for a long migration from the sea to
its spawning-grounds, is unsurpassed by any species of fish known.

Wherever the California salmon, in the process of artificial propaga-
tion, has come under the hands of the fish-culturist, it is acknowledged,
as previously mentioned, to exceed all other species, which are propa-
gated, in hardiness, in tenacity of life, and in freedom from tendency
to disease. Although it will not compare with the catfishes (SiluridcB)
or the eels (Anguillidw,) or even the suckers (Catastomidw,) in retaiu-
iug life out of water, yet, unlike these, it does not owe its tenacity of life
to a low, sluggish action of the vital forces, that retain life when the
respiration has become almost entirely impeded, but rather to the posses-
sion of an excess of vitality, and which exhibits itself in all stages from
the egg to the mature fish. Mr. Charles Nordkoff, in an article on The
Columbia River and Puget Sound, in Harper's New Monthly Magazine,^
in describing the processes at the canneries, says : " A salmon
bleeds like a bull." Professor Agassiz thought he found evidence in
the structure of the salmon family that indicated " the highest rank
in the class of fishes,"§ and refers with enthusiasm "to their admirable
structure" and great vigor.|| In addition, we have the testimony of
Seth Green and other fish-culturists, that the eggs and young fishes are
hardy and enduring, the latter great feeders and very rapid growers.
In the ponds of different fish-culturists in the country, it is com-
mou to see a school of several thousand California salmon a year
old or more, which are said to have suffered no loss whatever in

* Oncorhynchus orientalis, Pall. (English) King salmon; (Russian) Chowicheo; Na-
tive K'hab. Alaska and its Resources. By William H. Dall, director of the scientific
corps of the late Western Union Telegraph Expedition. Boston : Lee & Shepard,
1870, p. 579.

t Oncorhynchus protens, Pall, f English) salmon ; (Russian) hoikoh. Op. cit.

t No. 285, February, 1874, p. 341.

§ Lake Superior. Boston : 1850, p. 25.

U Op. cit., pp. 327, 328.

XXX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

numbers since they were placed in the pond. In the report of the
commissioners of fisheries of the State of New York for the year
1874-'7o, it is said of the California salmon : "These fish will endure
a much higher temperature of water, spawn at a different season,
are less exacting in the circumstances necessary to their well-
being." In view of these facts, as to their habits, endurance, and
general vigor and energy, have we not a right to hope for ultimate suc-
cess in stocking the Mississippi and other eastern rivers with this val-
uable species %

The stocking of a large number of rivers of the United States
with this food-fish to as great an extent as the Sacramento Eiver
or even the San Joaquin, is an enterprise well worthy great effort
and much pecuniary outlaj', and its successful achievement will prove
a blessing to the poorer classes of the country as well as another
evidence of the value of science in its application to the economic indus-
tries. If, however, our anticipations are only partially realized in a
moderate proportion to what we now have in the California and Oregon
rivers, the labor and cost of the experiment will not have been in vain,
and coming generations will have cause to thank the liberality and
statesmanship of our present law-givers.

G. — ATLANTIC SALMON.

During the seasons of 1873-'74 and 1874-'75 the collection of eggs of
Penobscot salmon has been conducted at Bucksport, by Mr. C. G. Atkins,
in the same manner as described in the report for 1872-'73.

The fixtures and apparatus employed have undergone considerable
enlargement and amendment, but the essential features of the system
remain the same as at first adopted. The salmon are caught in early
summer in pounds in the Penobscot Eiver, carried alive to a small fresh-
water pond, and kept there until the breeding-season, when they are
caught again and manipulated.

Duriug the first season the salmon had the range of a pond of GO
acres, and a large number escaped recapture at the spawning-season.
They have since been confined in an inclosure of about 10 acres, and
each year the inclosing banier has been made more secure. In 1873
and 1871 it was a strong net, and in spite of all exertions a number of
salmon each year escaped. In 1875 a fence composed of wooden racks
was substituted for the net, and proved an effectual means of confining
the salmon.

The means of catching the fish in the fall have been improved by
the introduction of additional pounds, nets, and other apparatus, so that
the waste of eggs by the fish laying them before they can be caught and
manipulated is reduced to a very small amount.

In the hatching-house since the first season the troughs have been
reduced to a uniform length of about 23 feet, and fitted with covers.

The use of tin boxes for packing eggs for transportation has been
mostly abandoned on account of its expense. Wooden trays, 3 inches

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXI

deep and from 1 to 2 feet in length and breadth, are now employed,
and make at once the most compact, convenient, and economical
package with which I am acquainted. The eggs are placed in these
trays in layers, alternating with layers of moss, from which they are
separated by pieces of thin fabric. When filled and put together in
stacks, the trays are encased in sawdust, which protects from freezing
during long winter journeys. In packages of 50,000 to 100,000 they
occupy about one cubic foot for 5,000 or 10,000 eggs.

The number of breeding-salmon bought and manipulated, their size,
the number of eggs obtained and distributed, and the number of young
salmon set free are exhibited by the following table :

Salmon bought.

Salmon recaptured at sp
season.

iwriing

Eggs.

Young

salmon
set tree.

Tear.

a

GO
OD

BQ

O

a

B
Eh

"la
o
srl

© •

® .

t 2°
.5 J

S3

O Jc (U

1873-'74

1874-'75

650
601

Pounds.
13.28
14.03

143

178

279
343

422
521

Pounds.
12. 28
12. 73

Inches.
32. 24
32. 19

2, 453, 638

3, 008, 356

2, 292, 675
2, 744, 877

2, 065, 445
1, 68C, 603

Total

1,251

321

622

943

5,401,994

5, 037, 552

3 752 113

The ratio of impregnation has been about 95 per cent.

Complete success has attended the incubation of the eggs, except in
the season of 1874-'75, when the eggs were all, or nearly all, affected by
a deficiency of strength in the outer shell. An average success was had
with those eggs that remained that season in the hatching-house at
Bucksport to hatch for the State of Maine ; but of those that were
packed for transportation large numbers were lost en route, or so greatly
injured that they died before hatching, or soon after. Mr. Atkins attrib-
uted this phenomenon to causes existing in the state of the water of the
pond and hatching-house, which remained, through prevalence of warm,
dry weather, in a low, foul state through the greater part of the spawn-
ing season. In 1873-'74 the water was renewed by copious rains, and
the eggs throughout incubation were in perfect health.

In 1872 and 1873, and again in 1875, all the fish handled at the
spawuing season were marked with metal tags and dismissed to the
river. The mode of tagging in 1872 was by affixing a stamped alu-
minum tag to a rubber baud passing around the tail. This was a de-
fective mode, and no results were obtained from it. In 1873 the alumi-
num tags were attached directly by a platinum wire to the rear margin
of the first dorsal fin. A reward was offered in the following spring for
the return of the marked salmon, and about twenty of them were sent
in, nearly all caught in the river, and more than half of them above
Bangor, 25 miles further up the river than Bucksport, where they were
set at liberty, showing that instinct did not impel these liberated fish to
return at once to their marine feeding-grounds. They were all poorer
than when set free in the fall. In 1874 the marking was omitted, but

XXXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the offered reward was renewed in the spring of 1875, and resulted in the
return of seven or eight of the marked salmon of 1873, now iu prime
order, weighing from 16£ to 24J pounds. Unfortunately the aluminum
tag had fallen off, and we could not trace the individual salmon, but
the wire remained to attest the date of their liberation and return. The
salmon set free in autumn of 1873 in poor condition returned in good
condition in 1875, and not before. Probably a much larger number of
these salmon were caught that were never reported, for the wire was fine
and not easily seen ; indeed, two marked salmon were placed in the
pond without discovering the mark till the spawning season.

The experiment has been renewed in 1875, with a change in the
material, platinum being substituted for aluminum in the tag.

7. — THE WHITE-FISH.

The white-fish (Coregonus albas, Les.,) of the Great Lakes is a fine table-
fish, and as it is produced in considerable numbers in favorable waters,
some attention has been given to its propagation. In 1872, arrange-
ments were made with Mr. K. W. Clark, of Clarkston, Mich., to hatch a
half million of eggs of this fish. About the middle of February, 216,000
were shipped to San Francisco, Cal., but being left to the care of the
express messenger, beyond Omaha, Nebr., they suffered from the changes
of temperature incident to a car with a fire in it, and arrived iu very
bad condition. On March 10, another shipment of 116,000 was made,
which arrived in good order. In 1873, 25,000 more were transmitted
and hatched, and the young fish placed in the waters of Clear Lake, from
which partly grown ones were afterward taken. Iu 1874 an additional
20,000 were sent by Mr. K W. Clark, late of Northville, Mich., which
were hatched at Berkeley, Cal., and put into Tulare Lake. On March
8, 1875, there were shipped to San Francisco, Cal., 100,000. and March
23, 100,000 were sent to the Lakes in the Indian Reservation at Keshena,
Wis. The States bordering on the Lakes and Canada have now begun
the propagation of this species, by which means they intend to keep up
the stock of the Great Lakes.

8. — THE CARP OF EUROPE.

After considerable inquiry and investigation we are disposed to be-
lieve that there are varieties of the European carp of superior value,
because of their table qualities, and that the idea entertained by many
that the carp is a very inferior food- fish has arisen from the testimony
of those who have been so unfortunate as to have eaten only those of
inferior quality.

Admitting its value as a table-fish, or even that it is of average excel-
lence, it should be considered a desirable acquisition to the waters of
the United States, for it has other characteristics which render it val-
uable, and which are not known to be possessed by any American
species, among which are its fecundity and adaptibility to the most

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIII

varied waters, from deep cool lakes and rapid streams to the merest
puddles and ditches,* and to latitudes from St. Petersburg, Russia, to

Italy-t

Its diet is also varied ; unlike the great proportion of American food-
fishes it can be sustained on vegetable matter, being expecially fond of
water-cresses and similar succulent plants ; it also devours worms and
insect-larvae voraciously. Heckel speaks of its fondness for sheep-dung,
and of its becoming fat upon it. It has proved to be admirably well
adapted to the processes of artificial culture, and throughout Europe
the species has been kept in a semi-domesticated condition from time
immemorial in a very large number of hatching-ponds. It becomes
very tame after a time, and may be taught to eat from the hand, to
come to the side of the pond the culturist desires, and to follow him
along its edge.

Heckel and Kner}: speaking of it, remark that its capability of rapid
propagation, its tough constitution, and excellent table qualities have
induced its abundant cultivation from a very early time. It is believed
to have been introduced into Europe from temperate Asia, and has spread
from the Danube over the whole of Middle and part of Southern Europe.
It is said to attain to au average of from five to ten pounds and even
more, according to the waters inhabited, while Dr. Rudolph Hessel states
that in Lower Hungary he had seen specimens weighing thirty and forty
pounds. The species is of rapid growth, and, under favorable circum-
stances, may be made to attain a weight of three or four pounds in three
years. §

In its domesticated condition the carp has developed very many va-
rieties, some of which are improvements in quality over the original
type, while the contrary is true of others. These different forms falling
into their hands, naturalists have been led to name them as different
species, and later students in studying the carp in its numerous forms

* In Couch's British Fishes a quotation is made from Sir Roger North, as follows :

" Carp are sometimes fed, during the colder season, in a cellar. The fish is wrapped
up in a quantity of wet moss, laid on a piece of net, and then laid into a purse, but in
such manner, however, as to admit of the fish breathing; the net is then plunged into
water and hung to the ceiling of the cellar. The dipping must be first repeated every
three or four hours, but afterward it need be plunged into the water only once in sis
or seven hours. Bread soaked in milk is sometimes given him in small quantities; in
a short time the fish will bear more and grow fat by this treatment. Many have been
kept alive, breathing nothing but air, in this way several successive days."

A History of the Fishes of the British Islands, by Jonathan Couch, F. L. S., vol. iv,
containing seventy-three colored plates, from drawings by the author. (London :
Groombridge & Sous, 5 Paternoster Row. 1845. Carp, p. 4.)

t In winter they are said to bury themselves in the mud in large bodies, and to re-
main in a somewhat torpid condition and without food, but losing little or nothing in
flesh, until the following spring.

t Die Susswasserfische der ostreichischen Monarchie mit Rucksickt auf die angriin-
genden Lander bearbeitet von Jakob Heckel * * uud Dr. Rudolph Kner * * *
Leipzig, Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, 1858, p. 57.

§Aigner, quoted by Heckel and Kner.

f— in

XXXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

have been obliged to gather long lists of synonyms, each applying to
one or more of the varieties. Giinther's list of synonyms embraces
thirtj'-one binomial names, aud several common names. Beginning with
the Koizpivoq of Aristotle, his volume includes new ones to nearly the
date of its publication.* He finds the names applied to the normal
type, to " varieties of the integuments," to " varieties of form," to
" monstrosities," to the " eastern [Asiatic] specimens," and to a " variety
with the fins much prolonged." His material for study included Euro-
pean specimens from different parts of England, Holland, Hungary,
Switzerland, and Eussia, and Asiatic specimens from China, Formosa,
Japan, and Java, all which varieties he refers to the one species, Gypri-
nus carpio L.

Another species, the Crucian carp (Carassms vulgaris (Miss.) Nord.)
is found in temperate Asia aud Europe. This, too, has been domesti-
cated and has developed varieties principally in the particular of form.
An extensive list of names pertains to this species, also. The testimony
of writers agrees rather uniformly that the Crucian carp is inferior in
flavor to the common carp ; still, it is cultivated in portions of Europe.
Its present distribution appears to extend farther north than the com-
mon carp, as it is taken in Norway and Siberia. A variety is also found
as far south as Sicily.

To add to the confusion into which the existence of so many variable
forms has placed the question of species, it is known that two or more
hybrids exist between the Gyprinus carpio and other species. The best
known one is that which was identified by Heckel as Gyprinus Kollarii,
now believed to be a cross between Gyprinus carpio and Gyprinus caras-
sius L. ; it is said to be found wherever the two species are kept under
domestication. This hybrid is considered to be inferior to the common
carp. Another one is the cross between G. carpio L. and Garassius
auratus (L.) Bleeker, which is thought superior to the latter, though
much cannot be said in its favor. In a letter received from Dr. O.
Finseh, still another hybrid is referred to between C. carpio L. and
Gyprinus brama L.

Among all these variations of form and external characters, differing
as they do in proportions of body, in the size of the scales, in the partial
or complete absence of scales, in the form of the fins, and in the combi-
nations of the characters of two species in a hybrid, there is also a varia-
tion in their edible qualities, in their prolificness, some forms being en-
tirely sterile, and popularly believed to be neuter in gender, aud also
in their hardiness and adaptability to more or less unfavorable waters.

In referring to the sterile carps, Siebold remarks that many are found
in which ovaries or spermaries are never fully developed. In some they
are so little developed that the generative organs are found only with the

* Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, by Albert Giinther, M. A., M. D.,
Ph. D., F. R. S., F. Z. S., etc., etc. Volume seventh, Loudon : Printed by order of the

trustees, 1803.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXV

greatest difficulty, and they are considered by many as asexual. The
sterile carp is mentioned by Aristotle. They are generally well known
and can be distinguished by those accustomed to handle them. In
France the sterile form is the Carp Brehaigne and Carpeau. De La-
tourette states that the sterile carp has shorter and thicker lips, and that
the belly in the. vicinity of the anus is thin and shrunken.* The better
varieties seem to be the Spiegel-karpfen, mirror carp {Cyprinus specularis
Lacep), {Cyprinus rex-cyprinorum (Bloch), Cuv.,) and the naked carp
{Cyprinus nudus Bloch) or {Cyprinus alepidotus Ag.) and the sterile ones.
It is claimed by certain English writers that by a process of spaying or
castration, which can be performed on the carp, the flavor is much im-
proved.

The artificial propagation of the carp has been carried on successfully
in Europe for a number of years. Their annual deposit of eggs, how-
ever, is so large in numbers that artificial impregnation is seldom neces-
sary, though affording a larger percentage of increase over the natural.
The spawning season in Middle Europe is May and June, though, accord-
ing to Siebold, some spawn as late as August. The eggs are very adhe-
sive, and in a state of nature are found sticking to the leaves of plants
and the small twigs of brush which have fallen into or which grow
under the water. The eggs are thought to develop best when only one
or two inches from the surface, t The fish emerges from the egg after
about twenty days, leaviug the shell still attached to the plant or twig.
The artificial method is to express the eggs on light frames of netting,
©r on baskets made by wattling a wooden frame with boughs, the milt be-
ing scattered over them as they lie adherent to the nets and the leaves.
The netting frames are placed vertically in a floating box, which, in a
running stream, is afforded the necessary water circulation. The basket,
when covered with the impregnated eggs, is treated in like manner.
The boughs of the juniper (Juniperus) are said to be the best for making
the baskets. The pairs of ripe fish may be put into the basket and left
to themselves, a piece of netting being tied over the top to prevent
their escape. After the eggs have been deposited the fishes should be
removed.

Among the localities in Europe where, it is stated, they are bred, the
following are referred to, with, in some cases, the name of the proprietor
or superintendent of the ponds :

" The naked carp {C. nudus Bloch) is chiefly raised in North Germany;
the mirror carp {C. rex cyprinorum (Bloch) Cuv.) in South Germany; the
scaled genuine carp in North Germany (Mecklenburg, Holstein, &c),
in Bohemia and Silesia ; " fide Dr. O. Finsch. Casel, mirror carp, Mr,
Lewin Fischhof; Geirsdorf, Silesia scaled carp ; Wittengen, Hanover,
Mr. Link; Hameln, Fishermeister Schieber; Liebbinchen, Brandenburg;

*See Die Siisswasserfische vou Mittel-Europa^bearbeitet Von C. Th. E. v. Siebold.
Leipzig, Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, 1863.
t Report 18?2-'73, p. 568.

XXXVI EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Drobriluyk, Brandenburgh, Traugott Mende; Wittengen, Bohemia,
Prince Schwarzenburg j Biddabausen, near Brunswick, naked carp 7
Prince of Schonnburg-Lippe ; Wiesbaden, common carp, mirror carp,
and gold-orfe, nassauiscke Fisberei, Actiengesellscbaft ; Niirnburg, mirror
carp; Gunzenbausen, mirror carp; Lusatia, estate of Cottbus Peitzj
Upper Silesia, Baron Eotbscbild ; Brickaberg, naked carp ; Heesen, Mr.
Bodeman ; Hocbst,* near Frankfort, mirror carp, scaled carp, and gold-
orfe ; Oldenburg, bybrid, C. Kollarii Heck., Mr. Wagner.

Tbis list migbt be multiplied many times.

Tbe present distribution of tbe carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Europe
may be given as throughout tbe middle latitudes of Europe, extending
northward to Northern Germany and southward into Italy. The C.
carassius L. has a more northern range into Siberia and Norway, while
the variety C. humilis is fouud in Sicily.

The special advantage to be gained by the possession of the carp is in
its general adaptability to all waters, and that it thrives under conditions
unfavorable to many species. According to Heckel and Kner, it prefers
"water not too rapid and a boggy bottom.

As a fish for propagation in ponds and other sluggish waters both south
and north, it is believed the carp will excel all others. In Northern
Silesia, according to Mr. Von dem Borne,t on the estate of Baron von
Bothschild, puddles two or three feet deep in the villages are used for
raising two-year-old carps for stocking distant waters. From this re-
source, a single estate realized what would amount to about $55 per
American acre of pond-surface.

The following is a recapitulation of the good qualities of the carp :

1. Fecundity and adaptability to the processes of artificial propaga-
tion.

2. Living largely on a vegetable diet.

3. Hardiness in all stages of growth.

4. Adaptability to conditions unfavorable to any equally palatable
American fish and to very varied climates.

5. Kapid growth.

G. Harmlessness in its relations to other fishes.

7. Ability to populate waters to their greatest extent.

8. Good table qualities.

The food-fish indigenous to the United States, which has been the
most widely distributed in the smaller ponds and lakes, is the large-
mouthed black bass {Micropterus nigricans (Cuv.) Lacep.) This fish is
very carnivorous, preying upon almost all species in the same waters.
Even the pickerel is said to decrease rapidly when in contact with it.
The necessity for fish-food is always a bar to a great increase of numbers
among fishes, especially in small bodies of water. Species which feed

* Carp in ponds at Baltimore, Mel., obtained here by United States Commission
Fisheries.

t Circular No. 1, 1876, of the Deutsche Fisberei- Verein, see translation in appendix.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXVII

upon invertebrate and vegetable forms fill out the possible quota of the
waters with their own kind, while the carnivorous species require that
a large, generally the larger, proportion of the inferior species upon which
they feed inhabit the waters with them. An instance of the ability of
the carp to stock waters to their utmost occurred at Heidelberg, Ger-
many, where male pikes (Esox lucius L.) were introduced for the purpose
of reducing their numbers.

9. — AQUARIUM CAR.

During the winter of lS72-'73, Mr. Livingston Stone was employed
in an investigation of the fisheries of the Sacramento Eiver and some
of the inland lakes of California. In the spring of 1873, he came East
to prepare for a return to California with an aquarium-car loaded with
fishes for both the inland waters and sea-coast of California — an enter-
prise partly under the auspices of the State commissioners of California.
This car, originally built for the transportation of fruit, was furnished
by the Central Pacific .Railroad Company. It was fitted up with the
necessary tanks, ice-chests, and beds for attendants; the supply- reser-
voir was arranged so as to receive water from the spouts of the rail-
road tanks.

The stock of fishes and invertebrates taken on board consisted of
60 black bass (Micropterus salmoides); 11 wall-eyed pike (Stizostedium
Americanus) ; 190 yellow perch (Perca fiavescens) ; 12 bullheads
{Amiurus catus) ; 110 cat-fish from Earitan Eiver, Amiurus albidus f) ;
20 tautogs {Tautoga Americana)) 41,500 eels (Anguilla bostoniensis) ;
1,000 trout (Salmo fontinalis) j 20,000 shad (Alosa sapidissima) ; 162
lobsters (Homarus vulgaris) ; and one barrel of oysters from Massachu-
setts Bay (Oslrea virginica.) The start was made from Charlestown,
N. H., June 3, and everything resulted favorably until the 8th of June,
when, by the giving way of the trestle-work of a bridge at the Elkhorn
Eiver, Nebr., the aquarium-car was precipitated into the river, the car
was partially up-ended, and the tanks thrown into confusion. As the
lids were floated off from the tanks, it is probable that most of the
fishes escaped into the river. Many of the species, however, were well
adapted to the waters of the river, but of course not the tautogs, lob-
sters, or oysters.

In the year following, Mr. Stone left Charlestown, N. H., on June 4,
1874, under the auspices of the commissioner of fisheries of California.
He arrived at the Sacramento on the 12th of June, and at San Fran-
cisco the same day. A tabulated list of the results of this expedition
will be found in the appendix.

XXXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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CONTENTS.

Page.

REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER. (Table of contents precedes report) I

APPENDIX A.— SEA FISHERIES AND THE FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES USED AS

POOD 1

I. Historical observations on the condition of the fisheries among the ancient Greekb

and Romans and their mode of salting and pickling fish. By J. K. Smidth 3

Introduction 3

Classified groups of fishes , 8

Caring processes 14

Lobsters 1?

Fish, oyster, and snail ponds 18

tj . Statistics of the most important fisheries of the North Atlantic. By Carl Dam-
beck 21

1. Norway • 21

2. Sweden 21

3. Denmark 22

4. Germany 22

5. Great Britain and Ireland 23

6. Fiance 24

7. North America 24

TTT. On the fisheries of Norway •. 25

IV. Statistical data regarding the Swedish fisheries 31

Y, Account of the fisheries and seal-hunting in the White Sea, the Arctic Ocean, and

the Caspian Sea. By Alexander Schultz 35

A- The fisheries of the White Sea and the Petshora 36

1. The herring 37

2. Thesalmon 40

3. Thenavaga (Qadtis navaga) and other salt-water fish *. 43

4. River and lake fish 44

B. Fisheries in the Arctic Ocean 44

1. Fisheries on the Mourman coast 44

2. Fisheries at Novaya-Zemlya 52

Q. Fishing and seal-hunting in the Caspian Sea 58

1. Fish found in the Caspian Sea 58

2. Spawning-season of the fish in the Caspian Sea 61

3. Wealth of fish in the Caspian Sea 62

4. Estimated value of the fisheries in the Caspian Sea 63

5. Fishing-basins of the Caspian Sea 64

6. Fishing-implements 72

7. Importance of a vataga (fishing-establishment) 80

8. Preparing the fish and its several parts 82

9. Market-price of fish and their products 90

10. Price of fish as fixed by agreement between the fisherman and the fishing-houses 91

11. Seal-hunting 92

12. Manufacture of seal-oil 95

VI. The Norwegian herring-fisheries. By A. I. Boeck and A. Feddersen 97

VII. Preliminary report for 1873-74 on the herring and the herring-fisheries on the

west coast of Sweden. By Axel Vilhelm Ljungnian 123

1. On different species of herring and small-herring 125

The spring-herring (Olupea majalis) 128

The sea-herring (hafslottsill) 130

The wandering-herring (Straksillen) 131

Herring-spawning in autumn 133

The large herring, or the so-called (ganila) herring, ( Olupea bohusica, Nilss) 133

2. Of the propagation and growth of the herring and small-herring 143

3. Of the herring's and small-herring's mode of life; its migrations, and the dependence of

these latter on meteorologic an d hydrographic circumstances . . 147

4. Of the herring-fisheries and thejr time and place............... „„..... j....^...... 150

XLYIII CONTENTS.

APPENDIX A- Continued. Page.

yil. Of THE HERRING AND HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE WEST COAST OF SWEDEN— Continued.

5. The smaL. herring fisheries, their time and place . 152

6. Of fishing implements, the manner in which they are used, and other matters connected

therewith 154

7. Scientific ol eervations and scientific as well as practical experiments necessary for con-

tinuing the i nvestigations and bringing them to a satisfactory end 365

8. Of the immediate continuation of the investigations and the sums required for this

purpose 167

VUI. The halibut-fisheries of the United States. By Lieut. P. de Broca 109

IX. The fishing-villages, Sxekkersteen and Skotterup, and the collection of fishing-

implements exhibited by them at Elbinore, Denmark, during the summer of 187a. . 173

X. On the herring, and its preparation as an article of trade. By Bjalniar Widegren .. 183

Introduction , 163

1. Preparation of common Baltic herring for consumption in Sweden and in, the German

ports of the Ealtic 189

2. Preparation of extra- fine herring for home consumption 192

3. Preparation of spiced herring (Kryddsill) 193

XL New contributions to the herrlng-question. The dispute between Axel Boeck and

OtsiAN Sars regarding the Norwegian summer-herring. Sars'u recent observa-
tions and HIS NEW THEORY ON THE MIGRATIONS OF THE HERRING 195

XII. Otf THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COD-FISH. By Prof. G. O. Sars 213

XIII. The Norwegian lobster-fishery, and its history. By A.xel Boeck 223

Introduction ?~3

Implements for catching the lobsters, methods of catching them, and tho manner of ship-
ping them 228

The lobster-trade and the history of its legislation , 232

Draught of a law regarding the protection of lobsters 253

XIV. Transportation of lobsters to California 258

XV. ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE LOBSTER 267

XVI. On the oyster-industries of the United States. By Lieut P. do Broca . 27 1

Letter to the minister of marine and colonial affairs 271

Chapter first —

Introduction , , 277

Chapter second —

Oysters of the United States ,»„ 2eG

Mode of obtaining the oysters 202

Culture of oysters 290

Laws concerning oyster-plantations 299

Chapter third —

The oyster-business in several cities of tho United States , 302

Chapter fourth —

General views upon the natural history of the market-clams. 313

Recommendations for introduction 318

APPENDIX B.— THE RIVER-FISHERIES 321

XVII. The propagation and distribution of the shad 323

A. Operations in the distribution of the shad in 1874. By James VV. Mil ner 323

Distribution from Coey mans, N. T 323

Distribution from South Hadley Falls, Mass 323

Table of distribution, 1874 326

B. Report on shad-hatching in New Jersey. By G. A. Anderson 327

C. Voyage to Bremerhaven, Germany, with shad. By Fred Mather 328

D. Living shad on their way to Weser. Translated by H. Jacobsen 330

E. Shad hatching and distributing operations of 1875 335

1. The Nouse River station 335

2. The Pamunkey River station 336

3. The Potomic River stations 336

4. The distribution of shad from the Hudson River 337

5. The Connecticut River station , 337

6. Experiments with a view to transporting shad to Germany 338

7. The trip to Germany 339

Tables of shad-hatching operations 340

XVTTL Report of the Triana trip. By J. W. Milner 351

XIX. On the transportation of shad for long distances 363

A. Experiments with a view to transporting shad in sea-water. By James "W. Milner 363

B. Experiments with a view to transporting shad a few months' old. By Charles D. Griswold 370-

CONTENTS. XLIX

APPENDIX B -Continned. Page.

XIX. On* tiie transportation of shad for long distances— Continued.

G. Apparatus for hatching shad-ov.i while en route to new waters. By Fred Mather 372

XX. Report of operations in California in 1873. By Livingston Stone 377

A. Clear Late 377

1. Field-work in the winter of 1872-'73 377

2. Character of Clear Lake 377

3. List of fishes inhabiting the lake 378

4. The condition of the fish in Clear Lake at different seasons 380

B. Sacramento River 382

1. Character of fishing on the Sacramento 382

C. California aquarium-car 385

D. Overland journey with live shad 390

1. Preparation for the trip 390

2. The start 390

3. The apparatus 391

4. The care of the fish 391

5. Journal of the trip 395

6. Experiments to ascertain the character of the water 400

7. Stations affording supplies of water 401

8. Temperature of the water in the cans 401

9. Conclusion 401

E. McCloud River station i 402

1. Catching the parent salmon 40:3

2. Confining the salmon 405

3. The Indian sentiment in regard to catching the salmon 408

4. Spawning the fish 410

5. The hatching-apparatus 4 1 1

6. Hatching the eggs 415

7. Packing and shipping the eggs 419

8. The method of packing discussed 420

9. Cost of the eggs 420

10. Journal of overland trip with salmon-eggs 421

11. Distribution of salmon-eggs 423

F. Catalogue of collections sent to the Smithsonian Institution in 1873 424

G. A list of McCloud Indian words, supplementary to a list contained in the report of

1872. By Livingston Stone 128

XXI. Hatching and distribution of California salmon 4ru

A. Report on California salmon-spawn hatched and distributed. By J. H. Slack, M. D 431

B. Hatching and distribution of California salmon in tributaries of Great Salt Lake. By A.

P. Rockwood 434

XXII. Report of operations during 1874 at the United States salmon-hatching estab-
lishment on the McCloud River, Cal. By Livingston Stono 437

Introduction 437

Table of consignment of salmon-eggs according to order of shipments 441

Cost of the eggs 443

Camp-buildings, &c 443

The hatching-apparatus 444

The fish and the fishing 445

The taking and ripening of the eggs 447

Packing the eggs 448

The overland journey of the eggs 44&

Life in camp 459

Our neighbors 466

Game 468

Extracts from journal . , 4t>8

Tables of temperature 471

Catalogue of collections sent to Smithsonian Institution, contributed in 1874 474

Second California aquarium-car 477

XXIII. Correspondence relatlng to the San Joaquin River and its fishes 479

XXIV. The Atlantic Salmon, (Salmo salar) 485

A. Report on the collection and distribution of Penobscot salmon in l£73-'74 and 1874-'75.

By C.G.Atkins 485

1. Methods 485

2. Purchase of breeding-salmon j 486

S. Development and distribution 488

IV F

L CONTENTS.

APPENDIX B— Continued. Page.

XXIV. The Atlantic salmon— Continued.

4. Marking salmon for future identification 490

5. Summaries 492

Tables 493

B. The salmon of Lake Charnplain and its tributaries. By. W. C. Watson 531

1. Abundance of the salmon in early times 531

2. The disappearance of the salmon, and its causes 534

3. Traits of the salmon 533

4. The Au Sable River 539

APPENDIX C— FISH-CULTURE RELATING MORE ESPECIALLY TO SPECIES OF

CYPRINID^ 541

XXV. Notes on pisciculture in Eiangsi. ByH.Kopsch 543

XXVI. ON THE CULTUKE OF THE CAKP 549

A. On carp-ponds 549

B. Carp-culture in East Prussia. ByR.Striivy 552

C. Carp-ponds -. 555

XXVII. The gold-orfe, (Cyvrinus orfus) 559

A. On the raising of the gold-orfo, ( Oyprinus orfus. ) By M. Eirsch 559

B. Correspondence relating to the gold-orfe. By Prof. C. Th. E. v. Siebold 561

XXVIII. Directions for using tables for recording the propagation and distribution of
FISH 563

APPENDIX D.— THE RESTORATION OF THE INLAND FISHERIES 569

XXIX. Fisheries and fish^rst-laws in Austria and of the world in general. By Carl

Pey rer 571

A. General considerations 571

1. Early protective measures 571

2. Improved appreciation of the interest - 572

3. The object of fishery-legislation 573

B. The fisheries 575

4. The former condition of the Austrian fisheries 575

5. The present condition of the fisheries and its causes 576

6. Artificial fish-breeding 580

7. Progress of foreign fisheries 585

8. Condition of pisciculture in Austria 589

9. Value of the products of the fisheries 598

10. Fishery statistics 601

11. Scienti^c investigations 603

C. Important fresh-water fisheries 605

12. Salmon family, (Salmonoid"i) 606

13. The pike family, (Esocini) 613

14. The catfish family, (SUuroidei) 613

15. The cod family, (Oadoidei) 613

16. The eels, (Murcenoidei) 614

17. The carp family, (Cyprinoidei) 614

18. The perch family, (Percoidei) 616

19. The sturgeon family (Ae>penserini) 616

20. The crawfish, (Astacus fluviatilis) 617

D. Protective legislation 618

21. The fishing-privileges 618

22. Foreign fishery -laws 619

23. Fishing-privileges and fishing-laws in Austria 643

24. The buying-off of fishing-privileges 665

25. International fishery-treaties 6G9

26. Salt-water fisheries and the laws relating to them 674

E. Conclusion 077

XXX. How can our lakes and rivers be again stocked with fish in the shortest possible

time ? By Mr. Von dem Borne 681

APPENDIX E— NATURAL HISTORY 685

XXXI. Preliminary report on a series of dredgings made on the United States Coast
Survey Steamer Bache in the Gulf of Maine. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D 687

XXXII. List of the marine algm of the United States. By TV. G. Farlow, M. D 691

Class Algae 691

List of the principal useful sea- weeds occurring on the United States coast 71G

Used as food 716

Used as fertilizers 716

CONTENTS. LI

m
APPENDIX E— Con tinned. Page.

XXXII. List of the marine alcje of the United SrATES— Continued.

Used for the manufacture of iodine 717

The great kelp of California 717

Alphabetical index 718

XXXIII. Lecture on the organs of reproduction and the fecundation of fishes and
especially of eels. By Dr. Syrski 719

Introduction 719

The organs of reproduction and fecundation in fish in general 720

The reproductive organs of the eel '. 725

The ovaries of the eel 730

The spermatic organs 732

XXXIV. The food and mode of livinc; of the salmon, the trout, and the shad. By D.
Barfurth 735

Prefatory note. By Theo. Gill 735

Introduction 737

1. The food of Trutta salar Siebold, (Salmo salar and hamulus Val.,) and Trutta trutta Sie-
bold (Fario argenteus Val.) in the river Bhine '. 738

2. The food of Trutta fario 753

3. The food of Alausa vulgaris while in the Khino 75?

Conclusion «•■ 759

APPENDIX A.

SEA FISHERIES

AND

THE FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES USED AS FOOD.

I.— HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONDITION OF THE
FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS,
AND ON THEIR MODE OF SALTING AND PICKLING FISH.

By J. K. Smidth.*

If it is interesting to follow the great and rapid progress which pis-
ciculture has made and is still making in our times, it is, on the other
hand, of no small importance to go back through the ages aud inquire
into the position which this sister of agriculture held in antiquity,
especially among those two great nations, the Greeks and Eomans
concerning which we have the most accurate and ample information in
the writings of their poets, historians, and scientists. Although this
rich aud almost perfect literature is known, at least in part, to many
persons through the study of the classical texts themselves, and by
means of more or less faithful translations of the same, but few, per-
haps, are aware of the fact that a large portion of these writings treats
of the life of the seas. They describe its inhabitants and their mode of
living, and inform us that in those times -fish were used as an article of
food, or put to medicinal and other uses. It would be a great mistake
to suppose that we would find a few obscure names only, as having dis-
cussed this subject ; on the contrary, they begin with Homer, and are
found throughout the entire wide range of classic literature.

If any one should ask for the reason of this ardent attachment of the
ancient writers for the sea and everything connected with it, the best
answer will be found in Buffon's Natural History of Fish, where this
famous natural historian says : " Fruitfulness, beauty, and long life are
essential characteristics of the inhabitants of the ocean." This is the
reason why Greek mythology, which, so far as regards the ultimate cause
of its imagery, was much better informed than we usually suppose, and
which produced ideals of undying beauty, placed the cradle of the god-
dess of love and beauty in the ocean, and represents her as springing
from the foaming waves surrounded by her sacred fish, glittering with
gold and azure. This allegory, as beautiful as it is instructive, is by no
means astonishing, for we find that the ancient Greeks had observed the

"Nogle historiske Bemserkningerom Fiskeriernes Tilstand paa Grsekernes og Romer-
nes Tid saint om de dengang brngte Tilberedelsesmaader af saltet og mariueret Fisk.
Af J. K. Smidth. < Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Udgivet af H. V. Fiedler, og Arthur Fedder-
Ben.— lite Aargang. Kj^beuhavn. Jacob Erslovs Boghatulel. 1871. pp. 34-02.

4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

habits of fish more closely than those of any other animals. They were
not only familiar with them, but they preferred them as food even to the
choicest poultry. The modern Greeks inherited from them this love of
the sea and its inhabitants, and still preserve it ; while the Romans*
weighed down beneath the most cruel despotism, the most fearful im-
morality, and the most insane luxury that ever disgraced a noble nation,
still clung to their love for the inhabitants of the deep. It is by no
means improbable that they inherited it from those ancient nations of
the East, among whom these characteristic traits may still be observed.*

The nearness of the coast, and the nature of the sea which surrounded
their country as it did on almost every side, naturally inspired them
with a love for ocean life ; and it may well be said, " that this circum-
stance is more closely connected with the progress of civilization than
is usually supposed. We find that it vanishes completely first in those
unfortunate portions of Europe and Asia where barbaric hordes of wild
huntsmen, issuing forth from their northern forests, succeeded by their
numbers and fierceness in changing the customs and ideas of the con-
quered nations."

These words of Buffon form the theme and starting-point for the fol-
lowing observations, which are partly taken from ancient Greek and
Roman authors themselves ; partly from more recent writers, such as
PaulJovius [Giovio], Aldrovaudi, Petrus Artedi, Gesner, Buffon, Sabin
Berthelot, and partly from the very able writings of Noel dela Moriniere,
of Rouen, on this subject.

The archetypes of our modern fishing implements, the net and the line,
have been known and used throughout the whole world from times im-
memorial. In Homer we find the fisheries in a flourishing condition,
and he frequently takes his similes from the art which, in all probability
not only the twin-sister of agriculture, but together with hunting, consti-
tuted the first mode of securing subsistence in the earliest days of the
human race. In the Odyssey, e. g., Penelope's sighing lovers are com-
pared to the fish gasping on the shore, where the fisherman's net has
been emptied. Hesiod places on the shield of Hercules a fisherman on
his lookout, ready to cast his net over some of the finny tribe which are
pursued by a dolphin.

The ancients knew as well as we that certain natural advantages,
•wisely managed, would open up new and remunerative lines of business.
Hence, the Greeks developed their fisheries to such a degree as to enlist
a large amount of physical and mental exertion, and they gradually
became one of the most remunerative of occupations. Large salt-

* During my stay in Paris, I had a long and interesting conversation with the
Chinese minister, and was astonished to hear how far advanced the Chinese are in pis-
ciculture, especially as regards the breeding and raising of fish. They also seem to
have a great many fishing implements which are unknown to us. He finally assured
me that M. Coste (the great French pisciculturist) himself might learn a good deal
by traveling to China, an opinion which was strongly corroborated by his secretary,
a Belgian.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 5

ing-houses were established in favorable places, round which soon
rose a constantly increasing number of fishermen's huts. These again
attracted artisans and merchants, so that the village soon grew to a
city, of which the fisheries might be called the nucleus. Of such cities
there was a large number, Byzantium and Sinope being illustrious ex-
amples. It is well known that the wealth from fish gave to the sea
near the former city the name of the Golden Horn. " Proud and beau-
tiful Venice" is of later date, but of similar origin.* Many private in-
dividuals rapidly accumulated large fortunes by dealing in salt-fish, and
the ancient writers of comedies frequently make such a trader (Keriphi-
los by name) the object of their raillery. This man, it seems, had been
honored with the Athenian citizenship, but his son, by a life of dissipa-
tion, soon spent the fortune which his thrifty father had amassed.

We are acquainted with about four huudred different names of fishes,
which have been described by Greek authors. "This abundance of words,"
says Buffon, " this wealth of exhaustive and accurate terms, presupposes
the same abundance of ideas and knowledge. Is it not evident that
nations, who had fixed the names of many more objects than we, must
naturally have known a great many more f

From what Aristophanes and other dramatic writers tell usof themode
of living amons; the ancient Greeks we know that in their time fresh and
salt fish formed a very important article of trade. Athenaeus quotes about
two hundred passages of authors, whose works are now lost, in which
different ways of preparing and preserving fish are mentioned. Xeno-
crates, iEschylus, and Sophocles did not consider it beneath their dignity
to speak of very tempting bills of fare; and Archestratus, who assisted
Epicurus in seeking the qualification of the senses, seems to have de-
scribed a great many such in his poem, " Dipnologia," a most amusing
and excellent cook-book, whose lossis still deplored by modern gourmands.
In the city of Athens the government, in its paternal care, even went so
far as to make a law obliging fishermen as soon as they brought their fish
to the market to sound a gong, so that everybody might buy fresh fish.
We are also told that fishmongers, in order to sell their stock more rapidly,
were not allowed to sit down, but required to stand during the time fixed
for selling.t

That fish formed U favorite article of food in those times, is clear from
the fact that great importance was attached to their fisheries. But other
considerations also tended to increase their interest in the success of
the fisheries. Fleets, as is well known, played an important part in all
of the wars of those ages. It was often a matter of considerable difficulty

* Regarding the remarkable fish-colony, Commachio, compare the work by M. Coste,
"Voyage d'exploration sur le littoral de la France et de l'ltalie." Paris, 1861.

tThis law seems to have been known in Vienna in the fifteenth century. At any
rate, there has been fouud in the archives of that city an ancient decree ordering the
fishermen to sell their fish standing and bare-headed, exposed to the scorching rays of
eun and to storm and rain, thus forcing them to sell their fish speedily and at a reason-
able price.

6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to find sailors sufficient to mau theni, and especially experienced sailors.
It was, therefore, a matter of great importance to the governments of
Athens, Sparta, and other states, that the fisheries should be encour-
aged, especially the sea-fisheries, which, in our days also, are considered
the best nurseries of sailors for the navy.

We must also take into account the fact that the greatest wealth of
Greece grewoutof her colonies. To maintain an intimate connection with
these was of the utmost importance; and for this end, also, the fisheries
were especially useful, since along the coasts of these colonies all those
fish were caught which move in schools. These fish formed an impor-
tant article of trade, not alone for the colonies, but also for the mother-
country, so that the former were necessarily dependent upon the latter.
The article for which there was the greatest and most widely-spread
demand, was salt-fish. All historians of that period agree in laying
stress on the great importance which this article held in commerce,
even before the time of Alexander, and during the last centuries of the
independence of Greece.

But after wealth increased, and luxury and effeminacy took the place
of the original simplicity of life and manners, the fisheries developed an
inexhaustible supply of new articles of food, and the Black Sea (Pontus
Euximis) and the Sea of Azof (Palus Mceotis) became what the banks of
Newfoundland were to the maritime states of Europe during the first
centuries after their discovery. Besides fresh fish, dried and salt fish,
oil, glue, and a number of other articles, prepared in an ingenious man-
ner from the roe and the intestines of fish and of other animals living
in the water, as also a large number of peculiar kinds of medicine, pre-
pared from them, became the objects of large and extended mercantile
enterprises ; and all these were often sent, at an enormous expense, to
the most distant portions of the then known world. Hence it was that
the fisheries constantly increased in importance, so that thousands of
slaves became educated as sailors and fishermen.

But the fisheries of Greece could not save her from decay. There
arose in Italy a new nation whose fixed purpose was to subdue the
world, which it ultimately accomplished. Borne, nursed by a wolf, never
renounced its wolf-nature. First, it ravished its neighbor's daughters
in order to secure wives; then their sons, iu order to secure slaves ; and,
finally, it carried its eagles over the beautiful land of the Greeks. But
Borne was practical, and its rule proved an advantage to the fisheries.
The most important question was how to raise sailors for the fleet. The
number of fishermen was not sufficient, and the crews of the Boman
galleys consisted more of rowers than of sailors ; but the latter were in
great demand, as they were more familiar with the element where battles
were to be fought.

Not only politics, but religion also, proved advantageous to the fish-
eries, for the Licinian law decreed that on certain days of the year salt-
fish only could he eaten. The fishermen had also their special festival,
which was celebrated with great pomp on ihe 3d day of June.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 7

The Romans, like the Greeks, carried on their fisheries partly along
the coasts and partly in the open sea. A large number of fishermen's
societies had been organized, which fitted out large vessels and sent them
on long cruises all over the Mediterranean, and even beyond the Pillars
of Hercules, up and down the coasts of North Africa, Spain, and Por-
tugal. They well knew how to make use of favorable weather, and were
familiar with the best hours for fishing by day and by night ; as, for ex-
ample, just before the rising of the sun and the moon, and just after
their setting.

The most ordinary fishing-implements were the harpoon, the line, and
different kinds of nets and seines. It will thus be seen that fishermen
in our time are not so very far in advance of their ancient brethren,
although of course these implements have been somewhat improved
during the progress of ages.

Noel de la Moriniere gives the following account of the method of fish-
ing with lines : " The lines were generally made of horsehair, single,
double, and plaited. The hair of horses was preferred to that of mares,
and black hair was not esteemed as highly as white. According to
iElianus, the hair was colored in different ways. The fishing-pole was
chosen with reference to the supposed weight of the fish to be caught
and the resistance it could offer. The hooks, which were of copper or
iron, covered with tin, were single, or composed of several branches,
and of different thickness. If fish were to be caught having sharp
teeth, and hence able to injure the line, it was surrounded just above
the hook with a covering of horn or some other hard substance, e. g.,
copper. For catching sharks, or similar fish, iron chains were employed.
Many details concerning these implements are found in the works of
the ancient writers." (Histoire generate des Peches, p. 188.)

Special care was taken in the selection of bait for line-fishing. The
most common bait was small fish, larva), worms, or insects ; some-
times, also, the lungs and liver of hogs and goats, shell-fish, and polyps ;
and even at times the entrails of animals which had been saturated
with an extract of myrtle and other odoriferous plants. Oppianus, and,
after him, Cassianus Bassus, as well as other writers in the time of the
emperors, have described a large number of different kinds of bait.
Tbey were prepared to . suit the tastes of the different fish. Thus the
" aurata" was caught with almonds and the sword-fish with mullets. Op-
pian says that the " lycostome " (a sort of herring) was the best bait
for catching the " sargus." As soon as a certain quantity had been
thrown into the water they came in large swarms to eat it, and the fish-
ermen then seized the opportunity to inclose them in their nets, and
thus frequently caught large numbers.*

* This use of bait in net-fishing reminds us of the sardine fisheries on the coast of
Brittany, as carried on in our own time. But here the roe of the cod-fish is used as a
bait for the sardines. To give an idea of the enormous quantity of roe used for sar-
dine-fishing, I will only mention that 30,000 kegs of roe are exported annually from

H REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The Romans also used artificial baits ; and the art of making flies of
feathers and other materials has, perhaps, never been carried further
in our time even in England itself. Fishing by torch-light was a favor-
ite amusement, and several ancient authors describe this mode.

There were peculiar methods of net-fishing, which we have only imi-
tated or somewhat developed. Hemp, flax, and Spanish reeds were used
for the manufacture of these nets, which were afterward tanned sev-
eral times in order to make them stronger. The fishermen set them
both along the coast and in the open sea. Drag-nets, which were first
used by the Greeks, served for inclosing the large schools of migratory
fish, and the stationary nets stopped them in their course. These latter
were very large, and were made of a kind of plaited work of Spanish
broom. Permanent nets of this kind were soon used at the mouth of the
Bosphorus, on the coasts of Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, especially in the
Ligurian Sea, the Bay of Naples, the straits of Bonifacio and of Mes-
sina, at the entrance of the Adriatic, the straits of Cadiz, and along
the coasts of France and Spain. Strabo makes especial mention of the
large stationary nets on the coast of the island of Elba.

The four hundred names of fish spoken of by Greek authors are given
in alphabetical order in the work of Aldrovandi, who, also, gives alpha-
betical lists of fish in Latin, Italian, French, German, and English.
Similar lists are found in Gesner, Artedi, and other authors. Those
who desire further information on this subject are referred to the works
of those ichthyologists. But to enable the reader to form some idea of
the numbers and kind of fish known in those times, the following list is
given, in which those groups and families are mentioned which were
most numerous in the Greek and Latin seas. Each of these groups,
therefore, comprises a considerable number of important species, to
enumerate which would lead us too far from our special theme. In this
list Lutken's system has been followed :

FIRST ORDER.

a. Tlie perch group. — Red mullets (Muuus) ; breams \Sparus);
scisenoids (Scicena umbra); and white mullets [Mugil)\ besides quite
a number of labroids (e. g., the parrot-fish, Scarus, and other simi-
lar fish.)

b. The toad-fish group. — 1, gurnards (Trigla); 2, frog-fishes, e. g., the
angler (Lophius piscatorius) ; 3, gobies (Gobius); 4, blennies (Blennius);
the sea-wolf (Anarrhicas lupus); 5, codfishes (Gadus), and especially
the " Asellus;" 6, flounders (Pleuronectes); and among these the turbot
(Pleuronectes rhombus), plaice (Pleuronectes limanda), sole (Pleuronectes
solea,) <&c.

Norway to France. Each of these kegs contains ahout 140 kilograms, making a total
of about 4,500,000 kilograms, or about 9,000,000 of pounds, valued at about 3,000,000
francs. Several owners of large fisheries have assured me that the buying of this roe
deprives them of half the profits of their sardine-fisheries.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 9

e. The mackerel group. — The mackerel {Scomber scombus); the tunny
(Scomber thynnus); the scad (Caranx trachurus), and the swordfish
(Xiphias).

d. The pipe-fish group. — The sea-horse (hippocampus).

SECOND ORDER.

a. The carp group. — The common carp (Cyprinus carpio); the tench
(Cyprinus tinea), and the loach (Cobitis).

b. The eel group. — The common kinds of eel and the sea-eel (Anguilla,
Conger).

c. The salmon group. — Nearly all kinds.

d. The herring group. — Especially the anchovy (Engraulis encras-
icholus).

THIRD ORDER.

a. Sharks (squalus). — The dog-fish (Scyllium canicula); the blue shark
(Galeus vulgaris); and others.

b. Rays (raja). — The saw-fish (Pristis); the cramp-fish (Torpedo).

FOURTH ORDER.

Lampreys (Petromyzon). — The river lamprey (Petromyzon fluvialis),
and the sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

Besides these fish, whales, dolphins, lobsters, crabs, oysters, various
kinds of shell-fish and other sea-animals, that came within the scope of
the fisheries, are mentioned, and ought therefore to be noticed in this
place. In the following pages some of the most important fish, as well
as the mode of fishing for them, &c, will be mentioned ; then the salt-
ing of fish ; and finally we will see what Pliny says about the artificial
fish ponds, which will naturally lead us to speak of lobsters, oysters,
shell-fish, &c.

THE MULLET.

The mullet (mullus) was a great favorite with the Romans. Horace
says, "You praise, O fool, a mullet of three pounds, which you are
obliged to cut into several pieces;" and Martial praises the mullet, say-
ing, " The mullet of four pounds, which you had bought, was the chief
attraction of your feast," (ccenw pompa caputque fuit).*

Noel de la Moriniere tells us in the following words to what length the
Eomans carried their passion for mullets :

"The mullet was one of those fish that were most sought for in
degenerate Eome, aud it was made the subject of the most refined
sensual enjoyment with the emperors and the aristocracy, who had
become thoroughly depraved by the extravagant use that was made
of the world's plunder. It is difficult for us to realize the enormous
value which the Romans placed upon this fish, for as it never reaches

*" Martial, Epigrams, s, 31.

10 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

any great size, they did not hesitate to pay its weight in gold if it
was unusually large. Seneca and Suetonius have given us, in their
writings, descriptions of the extravagant taste in the preparation of
the mullet for the table of the rich. We read there how each guest,
with the most refined cruelty, looked upon the mullet destined for
his own dish, die before him, in order to enjoy the rapid change
of brilliant hues which the fish then exhibited. The wildest fancies
that the most extravagant luxury could imagine were realized in pre-
paring it for the table. The freedmen who were intrusted with the
preparation of the mullet enjoyed the greatest privileges, and a good
cook was often better paid than a good general. Mullets were served
on dishes lavishly adorned with precious stones, and the most costly
spices were used in cooking them. During the reign of Heliogabalus,
extravagance reached such a height that this emperor, who had become
tired of mullets, although at that time they were growing scarce, ordered
(according to Lampridius) a dish to be prepared consisting of nothing
else but the mouth-fibers of mullets. It may well be imagined what an
enormous quantity was required to satisfy this morbid taste.

" Mullets from the straits of Gades (the straits of Gibraltar or the
straits of the Pillars of Hercules) enjoyed the greatest reputation.

Dat rhombos Sinuessa, Dicarchea littora pagros,
Herculese nmllum rupes ....

" Scarcely less famous were those from the sea around Sicily and Cor-
sica. According to Seneca, (epist. 95,) the Emperor Tiberius sold at
auction a mullet, weighing four pounds, to Apicius and Octavius jointly,
for the sum of 4,000 sesterces, ($156.) This fish, which can easily be
recognized, is very frequently represented on the fresco paintings which
have been dug out from the ruins of Herculaneum and Portici."

Though not exposed to the same cruelties as the mullet, there was
another fish which almost equaled it in costliness: —

THE SCARUS.

The scarus, a fish of the labroid family, was, according to Pliny, (Hist.
Nat., ix, 17; xxx, 10,) originally found only in the iEgean Sea. But
in the time of the emperors, when the simplicity of former days degen-
erated into extravagance and luxury, the wrasse was brought from
Greece to adorn the tables of the wealthy Eomans. One of the freed-
men of the Emperor Claudius, Elipertius Optatus, who commanded a
Eoman fleet in the Ionian Sea, brought a large quantity of these fish to
the coast of Italy, where they were put into the water near Ostia, at
the mouth of the Tiber. For five years all fishermen who caught such
fish in their nets were ordered to throw them into the sea again ; and
the consequence was, that that portion of the sea, aud even the Tiber
itself, as far' as the gates of Rome, swarmed with them. This attempt
to transplant fish proved so entirely successful, that these transplanted

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 11

scat* soon gained the reputation of excelling in richness of flavor
those of the Greek seas. In the time of Pliny, the scams was, without
doubt, considered one of the greatest dainties. Originally, the stur-
geon held this place, then the basse (lupus) and asellus, and at last
the scarus "came, saw, and conquered."

Ovid, in his book " Halieutikou," relates a remarkable trait in the
nature of this fish : when it has been caught in a net it does not swim
any further, as this would cause it to become fastened with its gills in
the meshes, but it swims backward, wagging its tail. As soon as
another scarus outside the net notices this movement, it comes to its
assistance, by seizing the tail of the captive, and thus draws it out of
the net. The relation of this remarkable phenomenon shows the accu-
racy of the observations of the ancients. Pliny tells us that the mullet
and the scarus when they find themselves pursued, act like partridges
and little children, hiuiug their heads at the bottom of the sea, and
imagining that the pursuer cannot see them, because they cannot see
him.

According to Suetonius, the " shield of Minerva," the famous monster-
dish which Vitellius brought into fashion, was garnished with scari
The part of this fish most esteemed was the liver.

THE MUR2ENA.

The mursena is described in the following manner by Pau A oovius,
whose words are given in a literal translation to show at the same time
how natural history was written in the sixteenth century : " Murcenas
are found in great numbers in all parts of the sea, but those from the
coasts of Sicily are the largest and best. These are the kind which
Columella calls ' flutes.' They swim near the surface, and it therefore
sometimes happens that when the warm rays of the sun dry their skin,
thereby depriving them of their flexibility, they can no longer dip beneath
the water and can easily be caught with the hand. They are speckled, and
are said to have star-like figures on their sides, arranged in the shape of
the dipper, which, however, disappears immediately after death. They
possess great cunuiug, for when they find themselves caught they swallow
the hook, bite through the line with their teeth, and thus make their
escape. I am of opinion that the ancient Romans prized the inurcena more
on account of its long life than of its delicious flavor ; for the large num-
bers required for daily use could easily be kept in ponds prepared for this
purpose, while most other fish soon died, either through grief at having
lost their liberty or through the neglect of the pond-keepers. We know
from Pliny that C. Hirrius, at a banquet given to Ccesar as Dictator,
could place on the tables 6,000 inuraenas from his own ponds. MursB-
nas could easily be tamed, and taught to take their food out of a per-
son's hand. Crcssus, surnamed the wealthy, was so much attached to
a niuraena which he had raised himself, that when it died he shed tears,
and had it buried. We also read an account of an answer, which

12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Croesus gave to L. Domitius, who laughingly expressed his astonishment
that any one could weep over a dead muraena; it might, perhaps, be
thought strange, he said, that he, Croesus, shed tears over a dead niurae-
na,but it was far more strange that he, Domitius, did not shed any tears
over his three dead wives. (Domitius had three wives, whom he is re-
ported to have poisoned in order to obtain their property.)

Certain ladies showed great affection for mursenas ; thus Antonia, the
daughter of Drusus, adorned a tame rnuraena with gold rings and brace-
lets.

Muraenas eat human flesh, and the cruelty of Vedius Pollio in this
respect seems well established. He placed those of his slaves who had
been condemned to death in his fish-pond, in such a manner that they
could not be eaten at once, but were gradually torn to pieces by the
teeth of the inursenas. It is said that the muraena breathes through its
tail, and therefore dies sooner when struck on the tail than when struck
on the head.

D. Ambrosias and several other ancient writers assert that snakes
mate with niuraenas, and that the latter entice the snakes to the seaside
by a certain peculiar whistling sound. Athenaeus does not believe this,
and in corroboration of his opinion quotes from a work on popular su-
perstitions, written by Andreas. Muraenas spawn all the year round, and
of this kind, the Mums, the largest and strongest is of a uniform color,
very much resembling that of the larch; so at least, Aristotle affirms:
Pliny calls this kind Myrinus. There is also a river Muraena, which is
much smaller and has only one point; and which according toDorianus
is the same that Athenaeus calls gallaria, and I think that Athenaeus
must have meant by this smaller kind what we call lamprey and not
the sea-fish. Iresius assures us that the flesh of the muraena is not less
nourishing than that of the eel, but on account of a certain hardness and
moisture it is very indigestible. It is, however, much prized on account
of its delicious entrails, with which, as Lampridius tells us in his history,
Heliogabalus, while far from any sea, regaled his court and the whole
rural population.

THE COD FAMILY.

Of the cod family, our northern codfish was certainly not known
to the ancients. The kind best known and most highly prized was the
Asellus, which, in all probability, is our Gadus merluccius. At all events,
Jovius tells us that the fish which the Ligurians call asellus was named by
the Romans squamus, or merluza. Pliny informs us how highly this fish
was prized. There were two kinds. The larger one is named, by Jovius,
banchus, and reaches a length of two feet. The smaller kind he calls
callarius. Pliny says that they have a small stone in their head, and
praises their delicate flavor. Galenus maintains that its flavor strongly
resembles that of the codfish. Aristotle relates that during the great
heat of summer they hide themselves, and he is unable to tell how often

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 13

they spawn. The asellus was also called Bacchus on account of the wine
color of its mouth, and this circumstance caused Ovid to exclaim " that
a fish with so many excellent qualities did not deserve so ugly a name
as asellus (i. e., little ass.)"

As an article of commerce the asellus was, for the most part, salted,
and in that shape sent all over tbe Eoman empire.

The Eomans did not confine themselves to these common fisheries,
but also ventured to attack the more dangerous animals of the sea;
and even whales, which came into the Mediterranean, often became a
prey to the fisherman.

According to Oppianus, this fishery, although only of casual occur-
rence, resembled very much our mode of catching whales before our
fishermen began to use explosive projectiles. There were attached to
the line, which the whale would drag under water while escaping,
two large leather bags filled with air, precisely like those which the
Greenlanders and the inhabitants of Kamschatka use. The description
of Oppianus is remarkable, as it contains many interesting details, and
seems to be entirely trustworthy. He says : " The moment the monster
is attacked, it dives down to the depths of the sea, and the fishermen
anxiously wait for its return. Their light boats plow the foaming
waves, and rapidly fly toward the battle-ground, where a combat is soon
to take place, on whose fortunate termination the keenest interest is
centered. The fishermen encourage each other by shouts, every one
strains his powers to the utmost, and the sea presents a scene of ani-
mated confusion. As soon as the whale shows himself again, it is at-
tacked with double-hooked spears. Its blood begins to flow, and colors
the sea for a great distance ; but like a staunch vessel, braving the
thunder and the lightning, the whale resists the furious attacks, some-
times with a single movement of its tail sweeping away the boats which
surround it, and mocking all the exertions of its assailants. But the
decisive moment approaches ; though mortally wounded, its tail still
throws a deluge of water over its enemies. But nothing can now re-
strain the zeal of the pursuers. The monster is overcome, and silent and
motionless it floats on the water like a conquered man-of-war after a san-
guinary battle. The victors then drag their prize ashore amid tumul-
tuous shouts of joy."

THE SWORD-FISH.

The ancient Eomans possessed many sword-fisheries throughout
the whole extent of the Mediterranean, from Byzantium to Gibraltar,
but they were of the greatest importance on the coasts of the Tyrrhen-
ian sea and in the great and shallow bay which forms the southern
boundary of France. The name of the promontory Xiphonion (called
so after the Latin name of this fish, i. e., xiphias) shows how valuable the
sword-fish was to the inhabitants of those coasts.

De la Moriniere says : u One of the most common modes of fishing was

14 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to employ, as the Greeks do, boats built in the shape of a sword-fish,
with a long projecting point representing the sword of the fish's upper
jaw, and painted with a dark color like that peculiar to this fish. The
sword-fish, imagining he sees a comrade, confidingly approaches these
boats, when the fishermen, profiting by the mistake, plunge their spears
into its side. The animal, although surprised, nevertheless vigorously
defends itself, and by plunging its sword into the sides of the treacher-
ous boat often exposes it to imminent danger. This moment is seized
by the fishermen to cleave its head, and if possible to chop off its upper
jaw. After thus overcoming its resistance, they tie their victim to the
boat, and so drag it ashore.

Oppianus has preserved an amusing characteristic of this fish, which
seems to contradict the statement made concerning its courage. He
says that if accidentally, or in the too eager pursuit of mackerel or tun-
nies, it finds itself in a stationary net, it retreats, suspecting some snare,
although it could easily tear the net. This timidity, however, proves
disastrous, for, at last remaining quite still, the fishermen come, drag it
ashore in their nets, and kill it.

SALTING.

Tiiis branch of industry was carried on in the earliest times by the
Phenicians on the western coast of Spain, and was afterward continued
by the Greeks ; but it was reserved for the Roman empire to raise it to
the highest degree of perfection. It was applied to many different
kinds of fish. By the term " salt-fish," we must not understand exclu-
sively fish laid in brine, but also those that were pickled with spices
and odoriferous herbs. According to Koel de la Moriniere's learned re-
searches, fish were preserved both in a raw and in a cooked state, and
in the latter case they were prepared with precious herbs only. He
adds, that ii would really seem difficult to suppose that the Roman
Sybarites, who had the most costly fowl and fish brought from Persia,
Colchis, and India, at such great cost, could find in salted tunnies,
and mormyri anything to gratify their spoiled palates.

The art of preserving fish in different ways made rapid progress.
Care was taken not only to preserve such kinds as would retain a deli-
cate flavor, but, also, to bring new articles into the market, that thus a
brisk intercourse might be kept up between the cities of Italy and the
colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean. In those days the mullet
was frequently salted, at which people in these times, at least with us,
would sneer ; and its roe formed a favorite dish with all classes. From
a passage in Athemeus, where he quotes Archestratus, we learn that
the sword-fish was then salted in exactly the same manner as is now
done on the coast of Sicily. " When yon c^me to Byzantium," he says,
" take a piece of salt sword-fish, and choose a slice of the back nearest
to the tail." Large fish were cut into pieces and underwent different

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 15

processes, both simple and complicated, according to which they were
differently named.

It would detain us too long to give a complete list of those fish which,
when salted, were held in great esteem. The following are some for
which there was the greatest demand : the sea-eel, from Siuope ; the
tunny, from Byzantium ; the mackerel, from Spain ; the tunny, from
Cadiz ; the sword-fish, from Sicily ; the mullet, from Exone; the scarus,
from Ephesns; the "pagrus? from Italy; the eel, from Strymon; themor-
myrus, from the Nile, &c. The names of all these fish of acknowledged
excellence served as recommendations for those cities or countries which
had gained fame by their manner of preparing them.

But most of these fish have lost in our days the reputation which they
formerly enjoyed. The mormyrus of the Nile, e. #., which Athenseus
described, and with which the learned Geoffroy St. Hilaire has made
us acquainted, is now scarcely known beyond the works of natural his-
torians. The same holds good of the tunny, which is now preserved in
oil, instead of being salted or dried as was the custom among the
ancients. The Komaus had learned from the Greeks a mode of pre-
serving it, which, with some modifications, is used even in our time
among the Italians and Spaniards ; it is called " escabeche." The fish
are first fried in oil with bay leaves, salt, and spices, and then boiling
vinegar is poured over them. This method was especially employed
with several kinds of mackerel, but likewise with other fish, such as the
" pagrus," the dorado, and even the larger kinds of perch.

The inhabitants of the Greek Archipelago were the first to preserve
the tunny. This fish was salted on the islands of Eubcea, Samos, and
on the coast of Icaria, which acquired the surname, " the coast rich in
fish." The ancient names, Cetaria domitiana, (near Orbitello and Santo
Stephano,) and Terra cetaria, (stretching from Segarte to the promon-
tory now called Santo Vito,) designate places where the Eomans had
large stationary nets, and they show the importance of these fisheries.

Tarentum, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, had gained a great reputation for
its salt fish, especially for its delicious tunny, which was exported to
remote districts. No less famous was the tunny from Sicily, especially
that kind salted in Cephalo.

The ancient Oetobriga, a Phoenician colony on the southern coast of
Lusitania, near the mouth of the Guadiaua, maintained its former great
importance under the Eomans on account of its stationary nets, and the
immense quantities of tunnies which were salted on that coast. Eesen-
dius, (Antiquitates Lusitanise, 210,) assures us that even in his time,
the ruins of the salting establishments of Cetobriga could be seen. The
new town, Neoeetobriga, which rose not far from the old one, and which
the Portuguese have called Setubal, (Saint Ybes,) continued to carry on
the trade in salt tunny, which had once enriched the Greek town.
Castro, the historian, fully corroborates the statements of Eesendius.
He says the name of the town is derived from " briga," which in the old

16 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Lusitanian language means " castle " or " fortified town," and from
" cete," i. e., " great fish" (tunny).

Malaga also owes its wealth and its name to the tunny fisheries, fbr,
in the Punic language, " Malach" means both "to salt," and the "salt-
ing place." Several other Spanish towns contended for the fame of
bringing the best articles into market. Gades (Cadiz) gained the
prize. The favorite parts for salting were the gristly portions of the
head ; but many portions of the body were also used for this purpose.
According to Galenus this fish was preferred in the salted state, because
it then seemed less hard and easier to be digested.

One of the most important fisheries in those times was a tunny-fish-
ery, which, during the Grecian period, brought great wealth to the
Carian and the Milesian colonies on the Black Sea. When these fish
in their periodical migrations came out of the sea of Azof, (Palus Mceotis,)
they followed the coast of Asia, and many were caught in nets near
Trapezon. Thence tbey went in company with other kinds of mackerel
to Sinope, whose inhabitants, according to Strabo, grew immensely
wealthy through this fishery. Amastris, Tejum, and Heraclea, located
on the same coast, likewise reaped a rich harvest. If we may believe
the author of " Storia philosophica e politica delle colonie degli antichi
nel mar ISTegro," the best harbors were Sinope and Galidon, on the
river Halys, near whose mouth great salting establishments were lo-
cated.

Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of tunny caught on the
coast of Thrace, the salt-fish from Sardinia were the most famous,
and those of the best quality were called Sardinians.

The fish known in France by the name of " auriolf (in Spanish " cav-
allay" 1 ) is another kind of mackerel, great numbers of which were salted
by the Greeks. Athenoeus praises it in the most eloquent manner, and
its fame increased still more after the Eomans had conquered Spain,
and had learned how to extract from its entrails the far-famed u garum
sociorum," a fish sauce which was greatly prized. Although several
ancient authors have written the most glowing encomiums ou this secret
preparation, (for it seems to have enjoyed then as great a reputation
as the English fish-sauce in our times,) it is impossible to discover
what this ' garum sociorum ' really was. Pliny, the encyclopedist of the
ancients, says that this fluid matter was an extract from the entrails of
certain fish that had undergone the process of fermentation. " The
Greeks," he says, "in former times, prepared 'garum' from the fish
called by that name ; the best ' garum ' comes now from Carthage, in
Spain, (Carthagena,) and is called ' garum sociorum.' You can scarcely
buy two boxes (each containing about ten pounds) for a thousand
pieces of money. No fluid, except scented waters, sells for so high a
price, and it is in great demand by all classes of society. The fisher-
men of Mauritania, Betiea, and Carteja, prepare it from mackerel, fresh

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 17

from the oceau, which alone are fit for this purpose. The ' garum '
from Klazomene, Pompeii, and Liptes is also highly praised ; and the
prepared fish from Antipoles, Thurium, and Dalmatia are no less to be
recommended." (Pliny, Hist. Nat., XXXI, 8.) Paul Jovius tells us
that the best " garum " was obtained in Africa. This " garum socioruni"
was chiefly prepared by a certain society of mackerel fishermen, (hence
the term " sociorum,") which in those times seems to have played a part
similar to that of the " Maatjes Hariugeu," herring-society, in the Neth-
erlands.

Besides this prime article of " garum," other kinds formed an exten-
sive item of trade among the Eomans. Atkenaeus tells us, among other
things, of one kind prepared from the entrails of the u lykostome" a fish
which is closely related to the anchovy, and which is probably the same
as that still to be obtained at Antibes, although Martial ouly speaks of
" garum " prepared from tunnies. (Mart. Epigr. XII, 103.) A similar
preparation, called '• Incia," was frequently used in the time of Helio-
gabalus, for preserving fish.

The epicure, Apicius, offered a great prize to any one who would
invent a new sauce or paste of the livers of mullets. But the name of
the man who secured the prize has been lost to posterity ; for, as Pliny
remarks, " it is easier said than done."

We will only mention, in conclusion, that the Greeks preserved the
sea-eel iu salt and marjoram. They were the greatest masters in pickling
the dorado and iu preserving the scarus in brine. But the Eomans far
excelled them in the use of costly spices, and in pickled and preserved
fish, which still further increased the enormous prices paid for the rarest
fish brought at large expense from foreign countries.

LOBSTERS.

Of lobsters, Paul Jovius speaks thus in the fortieth chapter of his

book: "Among the shell-fish, the lobster enjoys the greatest reputation.

Theodoras thinks this is the animal which Aristotle calls the crab. But

Oppianus understands by the term * crab,' what is commonly known

as the 'lion,' and Theodoras calls this kind ' Commarus? For in the

passage where he describes so vividly the combat between the mursena

and the crab, he gives to the latter an indented pincer-like claw, with

which it bites the neck of the lamprey." It is certain, however, that both

the lobster and the crab were known to the ancients, besides some other

kinds, such as the craw-fish, and those which Oppianus and the rest of

the Greeks called ; ' Karidce. " Paul Jovius does not show any great

knowledge of natural history, when he says that the lobster is red, and

yet certainly quite as much as the French Academy of Sciences in the

good city of Paris more than three hundred years later, since, not very

many years ago, one could read in the great dictionary of that academy

under the word " ecrevisse" the following remarkable definition : " animal

rouge qui marche en reculant," i. e., " a red animal which walks b.ick-
2 F

18 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

wards!' 1 "The flesh of this animal was generally found to be very hard,
but its eggs were eaten prepared in different ways and were considered a
great delicacy. They were also put to various medicinal uses ; thus they
were recommended for hectic and feverish persons ; and Galenus's teacher,
JErkhirion, advises those who have been bitten by a mad dog, to roast
alive one of that kind of crawfish, which in Greek is called " KarJdnos,"
and to turn towards the constellation Canis, when the sun passes through
the sign of Leo," &c.

*

FISH, OYSTER, AND SNAIL PONDS.

As to these ponds, we give the information found in Pliny, Paul Jovius,
and the Frenchman Coste in his extremely interesting work, Voyage
d'exploration sur le littoral de la France et de lTtalie, &c, in that por-
tion of the book where he speaks of the raising of oysters in Lake Fusa-
ro, p. 97.

From the passage quoted from Pliny, we see that the Romans had fish-
ponds for various kind of fish, but that the muraena, on account of its
peculiar tenacity of life, was best suited for being thus kept. Several
such ponds are mentioned as belonging to noted persons. Spawning-
ponds, however, such as are now found in great numbers on the coast of
France, where the fish are raised and fattened till they are fit to be sent
away, seem to have been unknown. It would appear that persons were
satisfied with putting those fish in ponds that were caught in the sea, to
have them on hand, as it were, to fill an order at any time ; although
many circumstances seem to favor the opinion that, at least as far as
the muroenas were concerned, many of these fish were bred and raised
in these very ponds. Though there are not sufficient grounds to prove
that the Romans had a regular system of breeding and raising fish, we
know enough to conclude that the raising of oysters had reached such
a degree of perfection as to command our highest admiration.

Pliny tells us that the first inventor of oyster-ponds was a certain Ser-
gius Orata, who in the time of L. Crassus lived near JBajoe. What led
him to this invention was not gluttony, but a spirit of speculation. He
had made a good deal of money by his bathing establishment, and by
redecorating old country-houses so as to make them look like new ones,
when he conceived the project of speculating in oysters. At that time
the existence of oysters on the English coasts was not known, and Brun-
dusium, which had almost the exclusive privilege of supplying the whole
of Italy with the article, was so far from Roine, quite in the southeastern
part of the peninsula, that the oysters reached the capital in a very poor
condition, often completely spoiled. It is well known that oysters and
fish are of a better quality in some localities than in others. Thus the
best lupus or basse* is found in the river Tiber between the two bridges;
the best turbots in Ravenna; the best muraenas in Sicily, &c. Orata found
in Lake Lucrinus a place specially favorable for his undertaking. This

* Lupus of the aucieuts, or Lnbrax lupus of naturalists.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 19

lake, which had a clear bottom and pure water, was connected both with
the salt water of the ocean and with fresh river- water, and in the hands
of Orata it soon became a gigantic oyster-pond, which could at all times
supply Rome with oysters of such an excellent flavor as soon to gain the
very highest reputation among all the dainty eaters in Italy; for they
ordered these oysters to be sent to them in wooden boxes filled with
water, even to places at a great distance from the sea. Athenseus tells us
that a noble sycophant, by the name of Apicius, sent fresh oysters care-
fully packed in jars to the Emperor Trajan, while he was waging war
against the Parthians in the interior of Asia.

The fullest information on this subject we gain from two ancient mon-
uments of the time of Nero, of which a short description is given in the
above-mentioned work by M. Coste. These remains consist of two
supulchral-urns of glass, one of which was discovered near Popularia, the
other near Borne. They resemble in shape our refrigerators of terra-
cotta, viz, a round vessel with a long, narrow neck. The outside of
these urns is covered with a sort of engraving, which, notwithstanding
its rudeness, shows us very distinctly an ancient oyster-pond. To con-
vince us still further, we fiod on one of them the following inscriptions
over the engraving: "Anima felix vivas," and "Stagnuni Pallatium,"
(the first containing a wish that the soul may live happy, the second be-
ing the name of a country-seat which the Emperor Nero possessed on
Lake Lucrinus ;) and immediately in the center of the engraving we
read the word " ostriaria," i. e n oyster-pond. On the other urn we read
the following inscription, " Stagnum Neronis Ostriaria ; Stagnum Silva
Bajoe," which leads the thought to Bajoe's famous coast, where also
Nero had a villa. The most remarkable thing about these engravings is
that a great number of poles are seen rammed in the ground — placed in
circles — for this can only have been done with the same object for which
this is done in our days near Lake Fusaro, viz, to give to the young oys-
ter an object to which it may cling.

It is evident from this that the ancients not only kept a stock of oys-
ters in their ponds, but also let tbem breed there, and in various inge-
nious ways made their extraordinary fruitfulness a source of income.
We have here authoritative proof of a regularly organized system of
oyster-culture, which brought untold wealth to its inventor, Sergius
Orata, this " niagister luxuriorum," as Cicero calls him. His example
was followed, and soon many other oyster-ponds were established. Li-
cinius Murena was the first who had ponds for fish, especially for the
muraena, which he named after himself, and soon most of the rich and
noble Boman families possessed their own fish-ponds, such as Philippus,
Hortensius, r.nd Lncullus. The last mentioned, as Pliny tells us, had a
channel dug through a mountain, near Naples, at a greater expense
than it would have cost to build a magnificent country seat, and in this
manner brought the sea- water into his gardens.^ Pompey, from this cir-
cumstance, called him a " Xerxes in the toga."

Shortly before the outbreak of the civil war with Pompey, Fulvius

20 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Hirpiuus was the first in the Tarquiniaii district to establish snail-
ponds. He arranged them in separate divisions : one for the white
snails from Eeatiue, one for the Illyrian snails distinguished by their
great size, one for the African snails, which are very fruitful, and
another for the Solitanian snails, which are the finest of all. He even
invented a special kind of food for them, prepared of thick must, flour,
and other ingredients, and by means of this artificial diet they grew to
an enormous size.

Galenus says that, as a general thing, oysters, especially if eaten raw,
produce witty thoughts. Pliny attributes to them a purging property,
and advises people to use the burnt shells as a remedy for dysentery.

In addition to the above, a large number of mussels and garden-snails
were eaten, such as the blue mussel, "purpura?," " buccina," " aures,"
" digiti," " ungues," " patellar ; " and Horace says, " effeminate Taren-
tum boasts of her large scallops." The ancients knew how to prepare
even sea-urchins and star-fish as dainty dishes.

The above may serve to give some idea of the state of the fisheries
among the ancient Greeks and Eoinans, as well as the different branches
of trade and industry connected therewith ; and we certainly feel con-
strained to admit that they had attained to an astonishing degree of
perfection. The fall of the empire also brought about the decline of the
fisheries. Eude hordes of barbarians overran the empire in overwhelm-
ing numbers, and destroyed a refined, and, in many cases, effeminate,
but at the same time beautiful, product of the oldest civilization.

I close these remarks with the following words of the excellent Noel
de la Moriniere : " The conquest of so many countries which were forced
to accept laws made for them by the barbarians, sundered all commercial
ties, after having destroyed the industry and art which gave them life.
We therefore see the most important fishery of the Mediterranean, the
tunny-fishery, after being entirely destroyed, revived again after long ages.

" In the history of the later emperors, we hear no longer of those
costly fish which the luxury of ihe wealthy procure from distant coun-
tries, and which gave luster and the greatest enjoyment to their ban-
quets. The fish-ponds which once swallowed princely fortunes, stand
empty and deserted. The time of extravagance has passed, and strange
and morbid fancies have lost their sway. People can procure only with
great trouble the most common fisb, in order to fulfill the ritual of their
religion. Fishing is carried on only by the poor inhabitants of the
coasts, whose abject poverty is their best protection against the plunder-
ing invaders, or who only manage to carry on their miserable trade, un-
disturbed, by retiring to lonely nooks, such as the lagoons near Venice,
or the swamps of Narbonne, thus interposing large and almost impene-
trable morasses between themselves and their avaricious pursuers."

Public interest is now directed toward the North, and here we also
find fisheries springing up anew, which soon grew to an astonishing ex-
tent and won for themselves a new and grand commerce ; so that Sergius
Orata would still not be entirely out of place among us.

II -STATISTICS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FISHERIES OF THE

NORTH ATLANTIC.

By Carl Dajibeck.

The following statistics show the yield of the fisheries of the most
important States on the North Atlantic Ocean :

1. — Norway.

During the twenty years from. 1850 to 1870, the average annual
amount of herring caught was 1,452,000,000 pounds, (avoirdupois,)
representing a value of upward of $2,200,000. The total export of
herring in 1870 was valued at $3,850,000. During the last few years
the herring have mostly gone to the province of Nordland. In the bay
of Malanger a comparatively large number of great herring were caught
in 1871. From August to November, 270,600,000 pounds were caught ;
and in 1872, as many as 1,210,000,000 pounds. The herring fisheries
south of the Stadt promontory have decreased. The cod-fisheries in
Sondmore were very considerable in 1871. Up to the 19th of March
four millions of cod were caught, representing a value of $330,000. The
yield of the spring cod-fisheries in 1873 was nineteen and a half millions
of fish, 110,000,000 pounds of liver, or at least 55,000,000 pounds of oil,
and 39,600,000 pounds of roe, or two millions of fish more than the year
before, or a half million more than the average annual yield of the last
fourteen years. The total values have probably been the largest ever
realized in the spring fisheries, and amounted to $1,870,000 ; while in
1872 it was only $1,386,000 5 and, on an average, $1,375,000 annually
during the period from 1859 to 1S72. The mackerel fisheries, of course,
did not yield so abundantly. In 1870 a million of mackerel, valued at
$14,300, were exported to England from Christiansand ; and in 1871,
1,813,860 were exported from the same place, valued at $63,202.70;
while 100,000 were sold in the city and neighborhood. The salmon
fishery in 1S71 was likewise very productive. During the first half of
the year, 177,685 pounds, valued at $29,729.70, were exported. The
yield of the Norwegian fisheries were larger in 1S70 than in any previous
year. The fish exported were valued at $10,833,909.90, or $1,268,300
more than in 1869, and $2,805,500 more than in 1866.

2.— Sweden.

According to the report of the superintendent of fisheries, Mr. von
Yhlen, the value of the fisheries in 1869 was only $894,947.90, while in

*Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1374, No. 13. Translated by H. Jacobson, p. 363.

22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

1870 it amounted to $917,079.90 ; for during the last years the herring
has again appeared on the coast of Bohuslan. Large quantities were
also caught in 1870 near Marstrand and Maltno, so that in Carlshamn
alone 19,146,600 pounds were salted, while in 1872 there were only
11,000,000 pounds. The mackerel fishery on the coast of Bohuslan,
which only continues one month, yielded in 1S71 an income of from
$8,100 to $11,200 in the district of Stromstadt alone. The salmon fish-
eries on the south coast near Carlscrona, adjacent to the Kullen promon-
tory, and those in the rivers Dal and Klara, were likewise very pro-
ductive. The export of fish from Gottenburg was very large in 1872.
No less than 135,905 pounds of salmon packed in ice, 349,8S2 pounds of
dried cod, and 5,500 pounds of anchovies were shipped.

3. — Denmark.

The Danish fisheries are not so extensive, because the abundance of
fish is not so great, and because the extent of coast is less. In 1869 the
fisheries in the Ljimfjord yielded the following : the 2,459 persons em-
ployed caught fish valued at $104,975, yielding a net income of $79,312,
and giving about $32.50 to each fisherman. This was less than in 186S,
when the total yield of fish was valued at $112,370. The number of
herring caught in the autumn of 1870, on the coasts of the island of
Funen, was so large that they did not all find a market. In the Great
Belt it was very small in 1872, twenty-eight boats from the town of
Korsor catching about a million, and valued at $6,415. In 1871 a large
number of cod were caught on the western and eastern coasts of Jut-
land, of which about 353,100 pounds, valued at $3,332.50, were ex-
ported.-

4. — Germany.

The German fisheries are not so remunerative, since the extent of
coast is small, and much of it consists of inland seas. The total net
annual income is valued at $1,500,000. Two fishing societies were or-
ganized in 1868, at Hamburg and Bremen, on the North Sea. The Ham-
burg North-Sea fishing society has worked with a capital of $120,000,
and their receipts during the first half of 1869 amounted to $23,380.61,
and during the same period in 1870 to only $19,713.26, or $3,667.38 less.
In consequence of the poor fishing season and the foundering of a vessel,
the society sustained a loss of $4,281.46, and was obliged to close its
office in 1871. The Bremen society met with similar disastrous experi-,
ences, and has also been dissolved. Great Britain exported to Germany,
in 1871, 962,533,000 of herring, valued at $3,436,837.50, which outlay
ought to have been avoided. If, however, this importation of foreign
fish is to be prevented, the fisheries must be carried on much more ener-
getically than they have yet been. In Emden, a new herring-fishing
society has been formed, which had every reason to be satisfied with its
success in 1872, for in twenty-one trips they realized $39,780. And if
it should combine fishing in deep water with fishing on the ocean, the

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 23

probability is that it will be more successful than its predecessors. The
fishermen operating from the mouth of the Elbe up to the boundary of
Jutland, catch, for the most part, bream, herring, and sturgeon. The
sturgeon fishing has been particularly good during the last few years. In
1871, however, it was not so good in the river Eider. In 1873, so many
plaice were caught that whole wagon-loads were sold for a trifle. The
number of cod and ray caught was likewise very large, while the herring-
fisheries on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein were very poor. On the
Mecklenburg coast, especially near Warnemiinde, the herring-fishery has
been carried on for some years by societies. Warnemiinde possesses
four herring-nets. Of the three societies fishing east of that town, one
netted $750 in 1871, while another realized only half of that sum.
The fishermen on the coast of Pommerania are very poor, for the fisher-
ies yield but little. The fisheries on the coast of Eastern Prussia are
richer, salmon and bream being caught in considerable quantites. In
September of 18G0 about 3,500 salmon were caught at the village of
Euss, near Memel, the average weight of each being 33 pounds, while
some ranged in weight from 82^ pounds to 102 pounds.

5. — Great Britain and Ireland.

Great Britain, undoubtedly, has larger fisheries than any other coun-
try in Europe. Cod are caught near Newfoundland ; herring, pilchard,
and sprats, off the British coasts ; salmon, mackerel, plaice, and other fish
are caught in Scotland and Ireland. McCullogh estimates the annual
income of the British fisheries at $20,000,000 j others, at $60,000,000.
The increase of the cod-fisheries will be seen from the following figures :
In 1790, it was 72,100,000 pounds ; in 1811, 137,038,880 pounds, valued
at $12,458,080 ; in 1825, only 107,030,000 pounds ; and in 1835, only
78,320,000 pounds, valued at $1,780,000 ; while in 1848, it was again
110,000,000 pounds. The success of the mackerel fisheries in 1821 was
entirely unexpected. The value of fish caught by sixteen boats, near
Lowestoft, on June 30, was $26,200 ; and the total value of fish caught
on the coast of Suffolk amounted to about $70,000. In 1827, no less
than 10,521 persons were engaged in the pilchard fisheries on the coasts of
Cornwall and Devonshire, and the capital employed in these fisheries was
$2,20G,075. There are cases on record where 10,000 barrels were landed
in a single day at one port, each barrel containing 2,500 fish. During
.the winter of 1829-'30, the sprat fisheries were so successful that loads
of from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels — costing from 12 to 16 cents a bushel —
were brought to Maidstone to be used as manure for the hop-fields. The
herring fisheries are still more abundant, and were especially rich in
1S71 on the south coast. In Lowestoft alone, more than 50,000,000 of
fish were brought ashore in seven days. They sold, of course, at a very
small price. On the Scotch coast, the fisheries were not so successful.
Tho herring-fisheries in Stornoway proved a failure, and the result of
the fisheries on the east coast was not much better. Notwithstanding

24 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

this, Great Britain exported to Germany, in 1871, 902,533,000 pounds,
valued at $3,272,750. In 1872, the fisheries proved very successful.
The Fraserburg herring-fleet of six hundred boats caught in a single
night upward of 10,000,000 of herring, valued at from $75,000 to $S0,000.
This is the largest haul on record in those parts. In no country of the
world, in proportion to its size, are the salmon fisheries as valuable as
in Great Britain. They arc most extensive in Scotland, where from
10,000 to 12,000 salmon are caught annually. In 1820, 21,817 were
caught 5 and from 5,000 to 6,000 are caught every summer in the Tweed
alone. The Scotch salmon fisheries were particularly successful in 1870,
many large and beautiful fish being taken.

C. — France.

As this country is very rich in natural products, and as the extent of
its coast is small, the fisheries are not carried on to any great extent.
But notwithstanding this, they yield a large income, the annual sum
being estimated at no less than $8,200,000. Herring, pilchard, and sar-
dines are chiefly caught on the coasts and in the North Sea. Sardines
and tunnies are caught in the Mediterranean, and cod near Newfound-
land. In 1818, 110,000,000 pounds of cod were taken. The herring and
pilchard fisheries are even more productive. Single boats from Dun-
kirk, Calais, Dieppe, and Boulogne, have caught as many as 28,000 in
a single night. On the coasts of Provence and Languedoc, from 220,000
to 330,000 pounds of tunnies are frequently caught at a single haul.
The finest sardiens are found near Antibes, Frejus, and St. Tropez, and
they are brought to the fair at Beaucaire in enormous quantities.

7. — North America.

The following statistics will show sufficiently the importance of the
North American fisheries. The fisheries near Newfoundland have
yielded the following : Excluding those fish caught by the English and
French, the Americans, in 1829, caught 195,030,000 pounds of cod. St.
Johns, in 1812, exported cod-fish and oil valued at $1,176,315. The
Americans caught, in 1818, 165,000,000 pounds of cod. St. Johns also
exported, in 1S12, salmon valued at $68,390, and herring estimated at
$35,595. Montreal exported in 1811 fish valued at from $350,000 to $100,-
000, and fromGaspe there were shipped from 11,300,000 pounds to 16,500,-
000 pounds. The New Brunswick fisheries annually yield from $200,000 to
$300,000, and those of the United States in 1817 yielded $17,069,262. The
most important fisheries in the country last named, are the cod and
mackerel. Boston, alone, in 1819, exported about 231,856 barrels of
mackerel. The cod-fisheries of Greenland were also very successful in
187 .

III.— ON THE FISHERIES OF NORWAY;

Christiania, November, 1873.
To Dr. Spencer Baird,

President of the United States Commission

Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C. :

Of the Norwegian salt-water fisheries, the haddock-fisheries are the
most important, and next to them the herring-fisheries.

The largest haddock-fisheries are those of the Loffoden, (Islands,) in
the district of Nordland, carried on from the beginning of the year till
some time in April.

About the time that the fisheries cease near the Loffoden, another
important haddock-fishery commences, in East and West Finmarken,
whicli continues till about the 24th of June.

A third periodical haddock-fishery, which promises to become of con-
siderable importance, is carried on on the coast of the Eomsdal district,
and partly, also, further north, in the districts of Fosen and Namsdal,
about the same time that the Loffoden fisheries are in progress.

Of the herring-fisheries, that of the spring herring, which is conducted
in the districts of Stavanger, Southern and Northern Bergenhus, and
Eomsdal, during February and March, has, so far, been the most import-
ant. During late years this fishery has been somewhat irregular. While
it has partly abandoned the usual fishing-places, especially in the dis-
tricts of Stavenger and Southern Bergenhus, it has been confined, to
some extent, to places where fishing was formerly not very good. On
the whole, however, it has diminished considerably, and during the last
four years the number of fish caught has not been half of what it for-
merly was.

At the time that the spring-herring fisheries began to diminish another
large herring fishery was opened up in the northern part of the country,
especially in the district of Nordland, and partly, also, in that of Tromso.
The fisheries have generally continued from the middle of October till
some time after the beginning of the year. The number of fish caught
has been constantly on the increase, and last year it reached 700,000
<'tonder, r (2,156,000 bushels,) or as much as in former times was con-
sidered the result of a good spring-herring season. The species of her-
ring called great herring (stor sild,) has become an excellent article of
trade.

* Translation of a printed letter addressed to the United States Fish Commissioner by
the authorities of the Norwegian commission, in response to an application for docu-
ments relative to the fisheries of Norway and Sweden.

26 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Besides the periodical herring-fisheries mentioned, there may be reck-
oned scattered fisheries along the coast of the Bergen and Trondbjem
districts, all during the summer and autumn. Summer herring and fat
herring are caught here, and they constitute an article of food much
sought after.

Further information regarding the kinds, results, and methods of our
fisheries, is contained in a work on the Norwegian fisheries, published
iu 1804, by O. X. Loberg, in the official statistics of fisheries ; as, also,
in the annual reports of the various superintendents of fisheries.

These works will show that besides the fisheries referred to, other
regular fisheries are carried on during the year, each of which, consid-
ered separately, is not as important as those already mentioned; but
which, nevertheless, taken as a whole, play no inconsiderable part in
the economy of the country.

Scientific investigations concerning our fisheries have, as far as the her-
ring fisheries are concerned, been made by Mr. AxelBoeck. The results of
his investigations are published iu a work entitled "On Herring and
Herring Fisheries," only the first part of which, however, has been
printed. What connection there may be between the decrease of the
spring-herring fisheries and the development of the great herring fish-
eries, is yet an unsolved problem.

Similar investigations regarding the haddock fisheries on the Lofloden,
have been made by Mr. G. O. Sars, who has published several reports
on the investigations which have led to very valuable discoveries as re-
gards the development and the manner of living of the haddock.

There is no uniform law prescribed for our salt-water fisheries, but
there is a number of separate laws for the separate fisheries, or for the
various districts.

Attempts, however, have been made to secure some uniformity of
principle in these different laws, so that no greater discrepencies exist
between them than are necessarily found between different fisheries
and different localities. The old laws and regulations undertook to
exert an influence on the fisheries as well as on the preparing of the
fish, by various restrictions and prohibitions. The new fishing laws, on
the contrary, have been limited principally to regulations concerning
the maintenance of good order during the fishing season, especially by
appointing officers for this purpose; so that the fishermen are allowed,
to a great extent, to carry on their fishing operations in any way most
acceptable to themselves.

A sea-police has been organized by the law of May 23, 1857, for the
haddock fisheries on the Loflod Islands. This police exercises its func-
tions by means of small vessels called -'skates," (skoiter,) manned by
five or six men, and generally under the command of a naval officer.
As to the details of this organization we refer to a resolution of the gov-
ernment sanctioned by the king, October 27, 1S5S, and contained in the
official journal (Departement tidende)fov 1858, p. 781, sqq. The expenses

ON TIIE FISHERIES OF NORWAY. 27

of this police amount annually to about 7,000 Norwegian "specie dalers,"
($7,966).

A similar sea-police lias been organized for the spring-herring fish-
eries by the law of September 24, 1851, modified by the amendments of
August 28, 1854, March 21, 1SG0, June 22, 18G3, and March 27, 18G9.
The annual expenses of this police, which formerly amounted to 10,000
Norwegian " specie dalers," ($11,3S0,) have been reduced, during the
last few years, to 4,000 " specie dalers, ($4,552.)

It has also been found necessary to strengthen the local police for the
great-herring fisheries. There has not, however, been the same amount
of inspection for these as for the Loffoden and spring-herring fisheries.

Legislation with regard to the great-herring fisheries is comprised in
the laws of April 25, 18G3, as amended May 22, 1869, April 20, 1872,
and April 5, 1873. These laws apply generally to all herring fisheries,
except the spring-herring fisheries, since these are the only ones with
regard to which the law of Sexjtember 24, 1851, with its amendments, is
in force.

The Finmarken haddock fisheries are regulated by the law of Septem-
ber 13, 1830, some of whose provisions, however, were annulled by the
law of May 18, 18G0.

The law of 1830 is based on old and limited principles of fishing ;
and the question has been raised, since most of its provisions are con-
sidered antiquated, whether it would not be better to introduce regula-
tions for the Finmarken fisheries similar to those in force at the Loffo-
den fisheries.

As will be seen, however, from the report of the committee appointed
for this purpose, made August 12, 1868, (published as " Storthing," Par-
liamentary document No. 79, session lSGS-'69,) the committee thought
it advisable, in deference to public opinion in the district, not to make
any changes for the time being.

The above-mentioned law of May 18, 1SG0, contains some general pro-
visions for all the salt-water fisheries in the districts of Nordland and
Finmarken, in as far as these fisheries have not become the subject of
special legislation.

In addition to the laws already mentioned a law of February 20, 1869,
is in force, making some changes in the regulations concerning fines.

We must consider the law of July 26, 1781, concerning the preparing
of so-called " round-fish," (rund-fish,) in the districts of Komsdal and
Sondmore, as nearly antiquated ; also the law of December 21, 1792,
concerning the haddock fisheries in the district of Fosen ; the law of
August 21, 1821, concerning the fisheries near Skudesnoes, and the law
of the same date regarding the spring-haddock fisheries in the Borgen-
fjord (bay) of the Sondmore district.

"With special reference to those salt-water bays and inlets which in-
deed may be considered as inclosed basins, and whose abundance of
fish is supposed to be chiefly dependent on local increase, the law of

28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

June 5, 1869, prohibits tbe use of any implements which, by catching
or destroying tbe young fish, would prove detrimental to the fisheries.

As to lobster-fishing, there is a law of June 29, 1848, still in force,
which, however, is destined, at no distant period, to undergo consider-
able alterations.

As regards tbe administration of justice at tbe fisheries it may be well
to notice tbe following ; it is a general rule that any differences arising
among the fishermen are not referred to any other judicial authorities
than those to which they naturally belong, and are treated in no other
manner than other matters in law, except that, as far as local circum-
stances make it necessary, the local police is strengthened, and the local
judge is himself either present at tbe fishing-stations, or sends a substi-
tute.

There are special regulations for maintaining order and for admiuis-
teriDg justice at two of the more important fisheries, viz, the spring-
herring fishery in the districts of Stavanger, Southern and Northern
Bergenhus and Eomsdal, and the spring-haddock fishery on the Loffo-
den Islands in the northern district.

A special sea-police has been organized for each fishery, as author-
ized by the laws which regulate these interests, consisting of from
three to four officers and a number of subordinates, all under the com-
mand of a naval officer. This police, which, as far as the naval officers
are concerned, belongs to tbe department of the interior and is com-
manded by the officer who superintends the whole fishery, is under the
immediate control of the respective local civil authorities. The higher
local authorities are empowered to appoint for each of the two fisheries
above mentioned one or, if necessary, several special judges, who, in-
stead of the ordinary judges, administer justice during the fishiog sea-
son in all matters relating to fishing in the fishing-districts.

This superintendence during the fishing-season consists in the exer-
cise of the usual police functions, and in seeing that the special fishing-
laws, the general commercial laws, and the liquor laws are properly
observed. In case of violations which can be punished by fines, the
superintendent imposes the fine. If this fine is paid, the matter is con-
sidered adjusted ; if not, it is referred to the judge. The superintending
authorities, i. c, the nearest officer present, with two men chosen by
him, must also arbitrate in cases of conflict between fishermen. (Law
of September, 1851, section 9, and law of May 23, 1857, section 33.)

The special judge must decide in cases wbere the fine imposed by the
superintending authorities is not paid, as well as in other cases of viol-
ation of the law which are punishable by heavier penalties than fines.
If, however, the case after having been heard by the judge cannot be
determined in accordance with existing regulations without the ordinary
authorities, (the government of the district,) it is then referred to them
to be disposed of in the usual manner. The special judge also arbitrates
in private differences arising in fishing or in the fishing trade. lie has

ON THE FISHERIES OF NORWAY. 29

also the power, in cases not strictly belonging to the fishing superinten-
dence, to select two men, who, in conjunction with the judge, have
power to make a decisiom.

The period of ofiice of the special judge is limited to the fishing sea-
son, and those cases which he cannot finish for want of time are referred
for further action to the ordinary judge of the district. The judge also
exercises this authority in cases belonging to his jurisdiction, which
otherwise belong to the bailiff, such as the carrying out of judgments,
arrest, confiscation, &c.

The superintending authorities have, as has been already intimated,
some small sailing-vessels at their disposal, on which the naval officers
live during the fishing-season ; and they sail round to the different fish-
ing-places, while the j udge is generally stationed on shore, where he
hears and acts upon the cases presented for decision.

As to the right of fishing in salt water, the following statements may
be made :

1. All kinds of fishing can be freely carried on in salt water by every
Norwegian citizen, whenever he may please to do so, in the sea or along
the coast. The state does not reserve to itself any rights in this re-
spect, except *he necessary police-regulations for maintaining order.
(Eegarding the privileges of landowners of the coast see 2.)

2. Free fishing in salt water is not confined to the sea, but also com-
prises fishing on the coast, except that as far as the coast itself is used
in fishing, e. g., for drawing fish on land or for fixing implements, this
rule is somewhat modified ; and in some places a different law has
grown up in course of time, as regards fishing for salmon and oysters.

Fishing from land is the exclusive right of the landowner, and he
alone has authority to place stationary fishing implements. Any one,
however, may make use of the land to draw his fish ashore, but with
this condition, that the landowner can claim a certain bonus, which, for
herring fishing, is fixed at 3, and in some cases at G per cent. (See law
of May 23, 1803, and law of September 24, 1851, § 36.)

The right to fish for salmon on the shore belongs, in many places, ex-
clusively to the landowner, even if fishing is not carried on with sta-
tionary fishing implements. Oyster fishing belongs as a rule to the
landowner. It may well happen that in some places a more exclusive
right of the landowner with regard to that portion of the sea adjoining
his property has grown up in course of time.

3. Besides the use of the coast for drawing fish ashore, which is guar-
anteed to every fisherman, some fisheries, carried on in the open sea
with boats, such as the haddock fisheries, require that the fisherman
shall have some place on shore for his boats, for his implements, and
for drying and preparing the fish. The old fishing laws contained
various regulations obliging the land-owners to allow the fisherman a
certain space on the coast, in return for a bonus fixed by law ; and even

30 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

now similar regulations are made in the Finrnarken fishing law of Sep-
tember 13, 1830, sections 2S-30.

Like regulations contained in the old laws regarding tbe most impor-
tant haddock-fisheries, viz, those of Loffoden, were annulled by the law
of May 23, 1857. By this law, this matter is left to a mutual arrange-
ment between the fisherman and the landowner, and the latter is in no
way obliged to grant tbe fisherman any space on bis land along the
coast.

It is but natural that among the fishermen themselves certain customs
and usages in fishing have arisen, which are strictly observed. Of such
usages, however, which are always taken into consideration by tbe
jndges in deciding a case, we are unable to give any further informa-
tion

Of Loberg's book " On tbe Fisheries of Norway," and of G. O. Sar's
last report, the Department of the Interior possesses no more copies.
We inclose the following : •

1. Statistics of Fisheries for 1870 and 1871.

2. Eeports on the Spring-Herring Fisheries for 1868-'09, 1869-'70,
1870-'71, lS71-'72, and 1872-'73.

3. Eeports on the Loffoden Fisheries for 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, and
1S73.

4. On Herring and Herring-Fisheries, especially the Norwegian
Spring-Herring Fisheries, by Axel Boech, Part I.

5. Eeports of G. O. Sars, 1864-1869.

6. Department Journal, (Departementstidende,) 1858, No. 49.

7. Amendment of the Law regarding Spring-Herring Fisheries, March
27, 1869.

8. Amendments to the Law regarding Herring-Fisheries, May 22, 1869,
April 20, 1872, and April 5, 1873.

9. " Storthings," (Parliamentary,) Document, No. 79, session 186S-69.

10. Law regarding Changes m the Begulations for treating Judicial
cases arising under the Fisheries, February 20, 1869.

11. Law regarding the Limitations in the Use of Fishing-Implements
in Salt-water Inlets, June 5, 1869.

The other laws mentioned in this letter will be found in the Eeview
of Fishing Laws prepared by Mr. Thomas Boeck.

IV -STATISTICAL DATA REGARDING THE SWEDISH

FISHERIES.

BY IIjALMAIl WlDEGIiEX.

[Nordisk Tidskrift for Tiskcri, published at Copenhagen. New series, Part J, November, 1873. Trans-
lated by H. Jacobson.]

Sweden, extending from north to south through more than 12° of
latitude, is washed by the sea on about two-thirds of its circumference,
which forms, in many places, large inlets. The country itself is trav-
ersed by numerous streams, and possesses a very large number of lakes,
so that nearly one-tenth of its whole area is covered with water. The
natural conditions of the eastern and western coasts, as well as those
of the water-courses and lakes of northern and southern Sweden, are
different, so that, taken as a whole, the country possesses a very great
variety of fish. •

In such a country the fisheries must of course form a considerable
source of income ; and, it is well known, that next to agriculture, forest-
culture and mining, the fisheries are the most important source cf reve-
nue, giving employment and subsistance to a large portion of the popu-
lation.

The most important fisheries in Sweden are —

1. The lake- fisheries and the coast-fisheries in the numerous narrow
inlets.

2. The salmon- fisheries in the streams and inlets.

3. The herring-fisheries in the Baltic and along the coasts.

4. The fisheries in the Kattegat and the North Sea.

1. The lake and coast fisheries in the south of Sweden are chiefly pro-
ductive of perch, jjffte, bream, and fish of the carp species ; as also the
burbot and the eel ; while in the north of Sweden, they yield mainly fish
of the genus Coregonus, but also some of those just mentioned. The lake
and coast-fisheries are carried on partly as a means of living by the
fishermen residing near the lakes and coasts ,• and partly as a means by
which those farmers, peasants, mechanics, and soldiers, who either own
the right of fishing in certain places, or have temporarily secured it,
may earn some little money. Although statistics regarding the Swedish
fisheries have been collected for some years, it is not yet fully known
how many persons are annually engaged in them ; nor has the value of
the implements used, and of the fish caught been ascertained. From
what is known in this respect as to some of the provinces, it appears
that this branch of the Swedish fisheries is of considerable financial
value, in proof of which, we may mention, that in Kerike, one of the

32 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

smaller provinces of the kingdom, 489 persons are employed in them,
and that the value of the implements is $9,430.

In the other provinces, with the exception of Sk&ne and Blekinge, the
lake and coast fisheries are carried on by a much larger number of per-
sons. The money value of gwiniad, Coregonus albula, and char caught in
lake Wettern, amounts annually to $27,775. On the Calmar coast, the
fisheries are carried on by 182 persons as their exclusive source of in-
come, while 689 having some other employment in addition, are also
engaged in them. The value of the inrplements used is $29,385. The fish
caught in the lakes and on the coast are either sold fresh in the neigh-
borhood, or are used in the households of the fishermen. As these peo-
ple keep no account of their labors, it has been found impossible to
obtain any exact data regarding the money value of these fisheries. In
order to reach some approximate result, the number of men employed
and the value of the implements used have bee*u ascertained j and from
these figures a tolerably correct estimate may be made regarding their
great value.

2. The salmon fisheries. — These are carried on in the streams of the
northern provinces, from £he end of May till the beginning of Septem-
ber ; and in the western streams, ( Wiska, Atra, Nissa, Laga, and Quis-
trum,) from the beginning of April till the middle of July ; and on the
coasts of Blekinge and Skane, (in the south of Sweden,) during the
winter months as long as the ice does not interfere. The streams rich-
est in salmon, are tkeTornea, Lulea, Umea, Ljusne, and Angerman, in
the province of Norrland. !Next come the western streams, mentioned
above, whose salmon are more highly valued than those from the east
coast, and which are fully as good as the Scotch salmon. The most ex-
tensive salmon fisheries in Sweden are those of Elfkartlby, in Gestrik-
land, and of M-orrum, in Blekinge ; the former yielding an average an-
nual income of $11,110 ; and the latter, of $8,300.

At present, the salmon is mostly sold fresh in the country, or, packed
in ice, is exported from Gottenburg and Stockholm to England and
Germany, and especially to Berlin. The larger portion of the salmon
caught on the south coast of Sweden, during winter, is smoked and sent
to Germany and Denmark. According to the most recent statistics, the
annual yield of salmon from twenty-seven Swedish streams is valued at
$170,035. The salmon-fisheries on the coast of Skiine and Blekinge
yield an average annual income of $33,330.

3. The herring fisheries in the Baltic and along the Coasts. — These
fisheries, which are by far the most important in Sweden, are carried
along the whole coast from Kullen on the sound, to the farthest point of
the Gulf of Bothnia, exclusively with open boats, each manned by two
or three persons. The fishermen use both stationary and floating nets ;
and the best fishing is at different seasons along the northern and
southern coasts. On the southern coast, the herring-fishery is carried
on by a population living together in large fishing villages, and depend-

STATISTICAL DATA REGARDING THE SWEDISH FISHERIES. 33

ing entirely for subsistence on this fishery. On the coast of the inner
Baltic, along the northern line of the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the island
of Gotland, the herring-fishery is partly carried on by persons living in
the interior, who, during the fishing-season come to the coast, and
partly by fishermen living permanently on the coast or on the small
islands near it. The Baltic herring are partly sold fresh, or smoked in
the towns on the coast, partly salted, packed in casks, and sent all over
the country, and of late years even exported to Germany.

As salt herring constitutes the daily food of the Swedish peasants and
the lower classes in general, the amount secured in the country is not
sufficient, so that a considerable quantity must be imported from Nor-
way.

Along the coast of Sweden, from Kalmar to Malon near Haparanda,
the herring fishery is carried on with 3,275 boats, and the annual yield
is about 66,500 tons of salt herring. In Blekinge there were salted in
1868, 47,732 tons of herring ; and in the Melmo and Christianstad dis-
tricts, where the herring fishery is carried on with 685 boats, there were
salted during the same year 13,600 tons. The greater portion of the
herring caught in the two districts last mentioned are sold fresh to the
inhabitants. On the island of Gotland, 1,911 persons, with 606 boatSj
are engaged in the herring-fishery, and the yield in 1869 amounted to
30,070 tons.

It may be safely asssumed that on an average the total annual yield
of herring on the Swedish coasts of the Baltic amounts to 150,000 tons,
representing, according to last years' prices, a capital of $833,330.
Besides the herring fishery carried on in the Baltic, the Clupea harengus
and Clupea sprattus are caught during the autumn and winter in the
Kattegat near the coast of the province of Bohuslau. The Clupea sprat-
tus is partly used fresh and partly salted or pickled, as anchovies, of
which latter very large quantities have been Exported during late years.
The amount of herring caught near the coast of Bohuslau was, in
1871, valued at $24,680.

4. The fisheries in the Kattegat and North Sea. — These fisheries are
partly carried on near the coast with smaller boats and partly out on
the Kattegat and along the western coast of Norway with larger ves-
sels, of from 20 to 40 tons, and manned by twelve or fourteen persons.

The implement- used is the so-called " storbackan," a line with hooks
which is laid out ou the fishing-banks to the depth of 100 fathoms.
Muscles or pieces of fresh fish are used as bait. With this implement
they catch cod, ling, flounders, halibut, and other fish. Some of these
are sold fresh, but most of them having been salted either by Norwe-
gian or Bohuslau traders, are exported. Codliver oil is prepared from
tbe liver, and the roe is salted and exported to France to be used as
bait in fishing for sardines. In 1871 Bohuslan carried on the fishery in
the Kattegat and the North Sea with 126 boats, manned by 1,226 per-
sons. The amount of fish caught by them during the same year was
3 F

34 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

valued at $177,930. During that year 5,257 cwt. of salt-cod were
exported from Gottenburg to England. The fisheries on the coast of
Bohusliin, including mackerel-fisheries, employed 351 boats, manned by
1,378 persons. The income from this fishery in 1871 amounted to
$97,790.

The lobster-fishery in Bohusliin was valued in 1871 at $22,180, and
the oyster-fishery at $4,010.

The editor of the Scandinavian Piscicultural Journal adds to the above
article the following items of information : In Sweden, the following
officers are appointed to manage the fisheries : ■

A superintendent of the lake, river, and Baltic fisheries, with two assist-
ants, and one teacher of pisciculture. This superintendent is, at present,
Br. Ejalmer Widegren, and his assistants are Br. C. Bystrom and Mr.
V. Wehlburg; while the teacher's place is filled by Baron C. G. Ceder-
strom. Besides these government officials there are special superin-
tendents over certain sections of water in some of the provinces, whose
chief duty it is to see to the proper observance of the fishing-laws.
Some of these superintendents receive a small addition to the salary paid
them by the provinces, from the central government, while others are
paid entirely by the provinces, by fishing-companies, or by large-landed
proprietors. The superintendence of the open sea fisheries (Kattegat
and North Sea) is- intrusted to an official, who is responsible to the Bo-
huslan authorities. The present incumbent is Mr. G. von Yhlen.

The duties of the first-mentioned superintendent,* as defined by a let-
ter from his majesty, the king, dated February 12, 1864, and by a royal
proclamation, dated November, 1867, are as follows: 1, to inspect the
fisheries in the different parts of the country ; 2, to propose suitable
fishing-laws wherever needed, and to assist the local authorites in up-
holding these laws; 3, to collect and compile statistics of the fisheries;
4, to superintend the government Normal Institution of Pisciculture,
and all similar establishments throughout the country ; and, 5, to give
the necessary instructions to the other superintendents.

* Dr. Widegren.

V.-ACCOUNT OF THE FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING IN THE
WHITE SEA, THE ARCTIC OCEAN, AND THE CASPIAN SEA.

By Alexander Schultz.

The similarity ill many respects between the fish and fisheries of the
great lakes and the northeastern coast of the United States and those of
certain portions of Russia has induced me to print the very interesting
and important memoir of Mr. Schultz,* prepared to accouipany the Rus-
sian display of fishery-products, implements, &c, at the Vienna Expo-
sition. In regard to the conversion of the sturgeon, so abundant in the
United States, and until lately considered a refuse fish, into a valuable
article of trade, the memoir will be found replete with valuable informa-
tion. It also details novel modes of capturing and utilizing the cod, the
herring, the salmon, the seals, and the smaller cetaceans, (porpoises, &c.)
many of them perfectly available in the United States, and worthy of
introduction. — [S. F. Balrd.]

In the district of Archangel, large fishing-villages are found on the
coasts of the White Sea, especially near the mouths of rivers and
streams, such as the Dwina, the Onega, the Souma, the Kem, the Kovda,
the Niva, the Oumba, and the Varzoukha. A still larger portion of the
population of the cities of Archaugel, Onega, and Kem, as well as of the
town of Souma, devote themselves exclusively to fishing and trading in
fish. The coast of the Arctic Ocean which extends east of the White
Sea has a very sparse population. Only here and there, at a great dis-
tance from each other, are seen the wretched huts of fishermen, inhab-
ited only in the summer, and the felt tents of Samoyed families, who
also live by fishing. The inhabitants of the town of Mezene, and those
of the village of Poustozersk, at the mouth of the Petshora, are engaged
either in fishing Or hunting the seal or the walruss.

Not more than 3,000 fishermen live in the vast region of the Lower
Petshora, extending three hundred versts (about one hundred and ninety-
eight miles) along the shores of the sea, and four hundred versts (about
two hundred and sixty-eight miles) up the river. The Lapland coast,
with the exception of the Kola Peninsula, is entirely uninhabited as far
as the Norwegian frontier. Only nomadic Laplanders show themselves

*Ministere ties doruaines. Comite" special, charge" de la collection des produits des in-
dustries rurales et forestieres pour l'exposition universelle de Vienne. — Notice sur le
pickeries et la chasse aux phoques daus la Mer Blanche, FOc6an Glacial et la Mer Caa
pienue. Par Alexandre Schultz, conseillor d'etat actuel et president de l'adininistra-
tiou des pecheries d' Astrakhan. — St. Pe"tershourg, 1873. 8vo, 80 pp., 2 1.

36 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

here and there. This country, called the Mourman coast, possesses a
great number of large and small inlets, which form excellent anchoring-
places. Five thousand fishermen assemble there for the season, from
April till the middle of August. The majority of these come from the
coast-villages of the White Sea, located in the districts of Onega and
Kern, and they are known by the name of "Poinortsie" — inhabitants
of the sea-coast.

The average annual value of the fisheries in the White Sea, the Arctic
Ocean, and the rivers flowing into them is a million "roubles," (about
$700,000 gold.) Of this sum, the cod-fisheries on the Mourman coast
yield at least 400,000 "roubles," (about $280,000 gold,) and the herring-
fisheries in the White Sea 250,000 "roubles," (about $175,000 gold.)
The phocse-hunt yields annually about 80,000 "pouds" (2,880,000 pounds)
of oil, valued at 120,000 "roubles," (about $84,000 gold.)

The manner of fishing and of preparing the fish when caught is much
less perfect on the coasts of the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean than
that of the Astraehau fishermen. The fish are, in general, salted in an
imperfect and slovenly manner. The monks of the convent of Solovetsk
alone distinguish themselves by their manner of salting herring ; and an
exception must also be made with regard to the salting of the salmon of
the Dwiua and the Onega. The reason of this is, not that the fishermen
do not know the approved method of preparing fish, but that they shun
the trouble and expense, and content themselves with the old saying,
"We go on doing as our fathers and grandfathers have done before us."

A— THE FISHERIES IN THE WHITE SEA AND THE PET-

SHOKA.

In the White Sea and the rivers falling into it, such as the Petshora,
the following kinds of fish are found, of which I will first give the Rus-
sian names : " Okouue," (Perca fluviatilis,) perch ; " yorsche," (Acerina
vulgaris;) "revtsa," (Cottus quadricornis ;) " kertcha," (Cottus scorpio ;)
"zoubatka," (Anarhiclias lupus,) wolf-fish; "harass," (Cyprinus caras-
sius,) carp; " vyoune," (Tinea vulgaris,) tench; "pestousch," (Gobio
fluviatilis;) " yelets," (Leuciscus grislagine ;) in the Tsilma and Peza
Elvers: " yaz," (Leuciscus idus,) nerfling; " soroga," (Leuciscus rutilus ;)
"lestche," (Abramisbrama ;) "oukleika," (Aspius alburnus ;) "stchouka,"
(Esox lucius,) pike ; "siomga," (Salmo salar,) salmon; "coumja,"
(Salmo trutta,) sea-trout; " koriouchka," (Osmerus eperlanus,) smelt;
" kharyouss," (Thymallus vexillifer, Agassiz,) grayling; "sig," (Corego-
nus oxyrliynchus, Lin.,) long-snouted white-fish; " nelma," (Coregonus
leucichthys, Pall.;) " seld," (Clupea harengus,) herring; " treska," (Gadus
morrhua,) cod; " pertoua," (Gadus callarias ;) " navaga," (Gadus na-
vaga ;) " sai'da," (Gadus sa'ida ;) " nalim," (Lota vulgaris,) burbot;
" kambala," (Pleuronectes platessa,) flounder; " kambala," (Pleuronectes
fiesus ;) " sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) sterlet; " minoga," (Petromy.
zon fiuviatilis,) lamprey; "petchorskoi sig," (Coregonus polkur,T?i\\\.,)

FISHEEIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 37

" peliad," (Coregonus peled. Pall.,) " tchir," (Coregonus nasutus, Pall.,)
" oinoul," (Coregonus omul,) and u saourei," (Coregonus vimba,) species
of white-fish.

Of all these kinds of fish, those forming the largest article of com-
merce are the herring, the salmon, aud the cod; then follow the
"navaga," the "sterliad," and the "minoga." The fish are exported
to the districts of Vologda, Viatka, Yaroslaw, Moscow, Olonets, St.
Petersburg, and to the several districts of the province of Archangel.

1. — THE HERRING.

The species Glupea liarengus is found in the White Sea only, and is
divided into a large and a small kind. The former is caught especially
on the southwest shore in the bay of Kaudalakcha, near the convent of
Solovetsk, and near the village of Pongama, and more rarely near the
city of Kem and on the northwest shore of the bay of Kaudalakcha.
The small herring usually attains the length ot from G to 7£ inches ;
and a thousand weigh about two " pouds 1 ' and a half, (90 pounds.) These
herring come up in large numbers from the depth of the sea in the
beginning of November, and make for the bays, especially the bay of
Soroka, where the inhabitants of the coast villages always catch them
in great abundance.

Herrings leave the deep sea only during the spawning season, in
order to reach the more shallow bays, and the fishermen call them by
different names, according to the time when they make their appearance.
The herring of St. George (appearing about the time of that saint's day)
has perfectly matured roe, and spawns in April. Two hundred and
fifty of these fish weigh only one "pond," (36 pounds.) It requires, on the
other hand, only from 80 to 120 herring of St. John to make the same
weight, and these have most of the time roe and milt. The autumn
herring are the fattest, but have neither roe nor milt.

Organization of the herring-fisheries. — It is a rule very generally ob-
served that the interests of a whole community shall not be injured
by the preponderating influence of private individuals, and that the per-
sonal rights of every fisherman shall be protected. To insure this, vari-
ous measures are taken, varying according to local conditions. For in-
stance, in the villages of Kaudalakcha, Kovda, and Kniajno'i, the herring-
fishery is organized in the following manner : the places near these vil-
lages where the fisheries are most productive being known, the entire
community goes there, aud the result of the common labor is divided
among the fishermen in proportion to the number of male inhabitants
of each village.

This proportion is calculated in the following mauner : At first, the
number of fishermen is determined, aud then the number of inhabitants
obliged to furnish one fisherman. In counting one fisherman to three
inhabitants, a family composed of three members must furnish one ; a fam-
ily of six members, two ; aud so on. Families having only two members

38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

associate themselves with others numbering four members, and thus
furnish two fishermen in common. Every one of these must furnish the
salt aud the necessary fishing-implements. When the fisheries have
come to an end, all the fish which have been caught are sold in a lump,
and the proceeds are divided among all the persons who havetaken a
part in the fishing. Families which, though taking a part in the com-
mon fisheries, wish to fish in other places, are authorized to do so with
their own means ; but, if the places where they desire to fish are particu-
larly rich, the community has the right to take possession of them as
common property.

On the northern coast of the White Sea, there is a large fishing-vil-
lage called Kauzomene, where, in the autumu, herring-fisheries are
carried on on a large scale near the mouth of the river. It is the cus-
tom in this village that the inhabitant of the village who first arrives at
the mouth of the river has the right to cast his nets first ; but after
having drawn them in, he must yield his place to the one who comes
second, and so on. The herring caught there spawn in May and disap-
pear entirely during the latter half of July.

Toward the end of the autumn and the beginning of the winter, great
herring-fisheries are going on in the bay of Soroka, where the inhab-
itants of the coast are joined by considerable numbers of Kareles, who
come from their villages, far away from the bay. Here every person
fishes for himself, every family enjoying its own gains. The fishing here
is always very productive, and it is not a rare case to find 100,000 her-
ring in the net and 70,000 in the sweep-net.

Implements for the her ring -fisheries. — The two wings of the net, when
spread out, have a total length of from 16 to 35 " sagenes," (112 to
245 feet;) their depth is from 2£ to 4 "sageues," (17£ to 28 feet;) the
meshes of the wings are from 1 to If of an inch square, and those of the
purse or bag § of an inch. The bag is 4 " sagenes" (28 feet) long, and
can contain 300 " pouds" (10,800 pounds) of fish. These nets are used
on the south coast of the White Sea, particularly in the bay of Soroka,
where usually 750 of them are employed at a time. The fisheries commence
in the middle of November and last till the end of February. Holes are
made in the ice in order to get the nets into the water, and they are
kept there by means of small sticks tied to the wings of the net by long
cords, and laid across the holes made in the ice.

For the autumn herring-fisheries, nets are used whose wings are gen-
erally 8 "sagenes" (56 feet) long, and every fisherman has such a net
in his boat. The boats always go out two by two. A cord with a run-
ning-knot tied to the prows of the two boats prevents their separating.
Every boat is manned by three fishermen, one of whom rows while the
second guides the helm, and the third continually sounds the sea by
means of a long pole, to ascertain the presence of a school of herring.
The moment the fishing ought to commence, the cord uniting the two
boats is pulled out; and the fishermen in each rowing rapidly, they

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 39

soon separate. Paring this time, one of the nets is cast, and the boats
keep in the same place till the whole net is in the water ; then the oars
are again put in motion, dragging the net a certain distance, when the
two boats again unite. The wings are tben drawn into the boats, the
bag is detached from them, tied up like a purse, and left in the water
till the second net has likewise been cast and drawn. After having
brought this double operation to an end, the herring are taken out of
the bag by means of hand-nets and crayfish-nets and put in the boats or
laid on the shore.

The largest nets, the so-called " eissauges," which are always hauled
on shore, are from 50 to 100 " sagenes" (350 to 700 feet) long, and have
a bag measuring 7 " sagenes," (49 feet.)

The total length of this implement is 8 " sagenes," (56 feet,) and
a cylindrical net is attached to its bag serving as a leap, 3 "ar-
sheens " (7 feet) iu length, and stretched over three small wooden
rings. The meshes of the cylindrical net and those of the bag
measure only half an inch, while those of the wings measure 1£ inches.
With nets of this kind, small herring scarcely two inches long
are caught under the ice ; of these small herring, 2,500 weigh one
" poud," (36 pounds.) This kind of fishing is chiefly carried on near the
mouths of the Dwiua, and cart-loads of these fish are taken to Arch-
angel, the price of one cart-load being generally 5 " roubles," ($3.50 gold.)

The sweep-nets have mostly ten hoops ; the first or foremost one, being
the largest, about 2£ " arsheens " (5 feet 10 inches) in diameter, while
the last or hindmost, being the smallest, measures only £ " arsheen," (1
foot 2 inches.) The hoops are placed at a distance of 1£ " arsheens" (3
feet 6 inches) from each other. The meshes are one inch square. Two
little necks, shaped like funnels, called "gorges" by the fishermen, are
attached to the inside of the nets ; and, through these openings, the fish
enter the net, where they become imprisoned. Each wing of the net
measures 10 " sagenes" (70 feet) iu length. These sweep-nets are placed
at a depth varying from 1 to 3 "sagenes," (7 to 21 feet,) chiefly during
the months of January and February.

Preparing the herring.- — The herring caught in the spring, summer,
and autumn, in the bay of Kandalakcha, at Pogama, at Solovetsk, and
other places, are always salted. The monks of Solovetsk know how to do
this admirably. They do not take out the entrails, but after having
washed the herring properly, they barrel them in layers with the greatest
precision, and put a thick covering of salt on every layer, after which
the barrels are placed in the ice- vaults.

In most of the villages, on the contrary, the herring are thrown pro-
miscuously into pine- barrels, which are so badly made that they scarce-
ly retain the brine ; then a quantity of salt is added, and the whole is
well shaken. Sometimes the large herring of St. John are dressed,
and then placed in layers iu the barrels, slightly salted. The barrels
are then left to stand a week and a half till the fish are completely im-

40 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

pregDated with the salt, and then finally closed. The barrels generally
used are 16 inches high and 9£ inches in diameter. Every barrel contains
usually from 70 to 100 herring of St. John, or from 200 to 250 of St.
George, and its weight varies between 34 and 42 pounds. To every bar-
rel the fishermen take 4 pounds of salt in the spring, and G pounds in
the autumn. The largest barrels, containing from 150 to 400 herring,
are one " arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) high, and half an " arsheen" (1 foot
2 inches) in diameter. At Archangel, the price of such a barrel varies
from 30 to 50 " kopecks," (21 to 35 cents.) For salting, Spanish or Arch-
angel salt is used.

The herring are smoked in some villages of the district of Kem, at
Saroka, at Jisma, and at Saukho'i Navoloki, where there are 80 smoke-
houses. The village of Ouua, in the district of Onega, has 4 smoke-
houses. They are simple sheds covered by a slanting roof, with small
apertures to let the smoke pass out. Parallel to the walls, fifteen or
more poles are placed at a distance of 1£ " arsheens " (3 feet 6 inches)
from each other, supporting other poles, which are placed across the
former. On these poles small laths are placed, pointed at the end, and
on which the herring are spitted, after having been washed and salted.
After eight or nine days, the herring are thoroughly smoked. The whole
process usually takes twelve days. The smoked herring cost 90
"kopecks" (63 cents) a thousand, and sometimes even 1 "rouble" 25
"kopecks," (about 87 cents.) Not less than ten millions of herring are
smoked every year.

2. — THE SALMON.

They distinguish three kinds of salmon according to the time when
they show themselves in the rivers. The first makes its appearance im-
mediately after the breaking of the ice, toward the end of May or the
beginning of June. Its roe is almost matured. The salmon of this kind
is of medium size, and weighs about seven pounds. The second kind
appears toward the end of June and during July ; it is small, and weighs
only three pounds. At this time, male fish are found with the milt
almost matured. The third kind begins to ascend the rivers in August,
and stays there till the water is covered with a slight coating of ice.
Among them are found males as well as females ; but milt and roe are
so little developed that this salmon cannot spawn that same autumn.
This kind is the largest and fattest; some caught in the Dwina and
Onega weighing twenty pounds. The first two kinds named enter the
rivers to spawn during the autumn of the same year. After having
spawned, they spend the winter in the rivers, returning to the sea in
the spring. In the Petshora, the Mezene, the Dwina, the Onega, and the
Varzoukha, the salmon is caught in enormous quantities.

Implements for salmon- fishing. — The bars, which extend over the
entire breadth of the river or over a portion of the stream, consist of
stakes firmly driven in the ground, to which poles are attached support-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 41

iug a sort of trellis made of boughs. These parks are arrange/ in zig-
zag shape, the outer angles having openings, where leaps ov wooden
boxes are placed. These bars are not used in the Petshora, tbe Mezene,
the Koulo'i, and the Dwina, but in all the other rivers falling into the
White Sea.

As soon as the rising of the river has subsided, people begiu to build
these bars, always leaving an opening of 3 "sagenes" (21 feet) to let
the fish and the boats pass. The bar of the river Ponoi consists of two
parallel rows of stakes on which transverse beams rest, surmounted by
long thick poles weighted down by stones. The stakes are driven in at
a distauce of 2 "sagenes" (14 feet) from each other. In the interven-
ing spaces, horizontal and vertical poles are fixed, furnished with a
trellis of thin branches, and here the apparatus for catching the fish
is placed, consisting of a large box whose opening is turned toward the
mouth of the river. This apparatus is called "ta'iuik" in Russian. A
funnel, 10 inches broad and 1£ "sagenes" (10£ feet) long, leads to this
box, open at the top and crossed by planks, on which the fisherman
stands ready to take out the captured salmon with a small net.

In the Onega, near the village of Podporojye, the bar has only one
row of wooden stakes, on which thick poles are placed, weighted down by
heavy stones. In the intervening spaces, poles driven in at a distance of
2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) from each other, support the trellis. As
raits of timber and planks float down the river, bars have been built 2
"sagenes" (14 feet) in front of the chief bar, in order to preserve them
against accidents. These last-mentioned bars are a sort of ramparts
formed by beams floating on the water and attached to trestles placed
there for the purpose. In the Onega, no boxes, but sweep-nets, are
placed on the bars. While the fishermen take up and examine the
sweep-nets, they are replaced by a net stretched on a wooden frame, so
as to prevent the fish from passing.

Near the town of Onega, they use, besides the sweep-nets, a bog-net
called "kourma." This is placed opposite the opening of the sweep-net,
and is intended to catch those salmon which may attempt to escape the
moment the leap is taken up.

At the bar of the river Kitcha, another sweep-net is used, which has the
shape of a truncated pyramid, and consists of a certain number of poles
fastened in a wooden frame. The foremost part of this pyramid is open
andis turned toward the opening in the bar. A funnel-shaped net, called
" gorge, " is attached to the frame, having the shape of a quadrangu-
lar, truncated pyramid. This apparatus is placed on a support by means
of a winch, and one of the fishermen slips inside to take the salmon*
The sweep-nets of the bar of the river Souina are called " merschi," and
consist of several wooden frames resembling the apparatus which has just
been described.

Skillful divers are kept at all the bars, who immediately repair any dam-
age done under the water. These bars are constructed and put in posi-

42 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

tion by special manufacturers, who inspect them during the fishing-sea-
son, and take them to pices at the end of the autumn.

In June and July, they fish for the salmon with seines 6 " sagenes "
long, (42 feet,) whose bag is 4 " sagenes" (28 feet) long and 3 " sagenes"
(21 feet) wide. The meshes of the bag are an inch square, and those of
the wings of the seine from 1£ to 2\ inches. These seines are also used
as stationary nets. The following is the method of fishing: One of the
fishermen remains on shore and holds the cord attached to the shortest
wing. The others gradually lower the net into the sea, standing at a
distance of several "sagenes" from each other. One-half of the net is
in a straight line from the shore, while the other half forms a large
semicircle, whose extremity approaches the portion under water in the
shape of a hook, in such a manner that there is a passage of 4
"sagenes" (28 feet) between the halves, which leads into the hook
above mentioned. As soon as one of the fishermen, who is on the out-
look in one of the boats, notices that a certain number of salmon have
entered the net, he detaches from the pole the cord keeping back that
end of the wiug of the net which forms the hook, and takes off the nip-
pers holding the bolt-ropes to the poles, so that the longer wing of the
net becomes free and can be hauled on shore by means of a winch. The
salmon which have been caught in the hook are in this manner forced
to enter the bag, which the fishermen afterward draw on shore.

In the Petshora River, seines are used measuring from 250 to 400
" sagenes" (1,750 to 2,800 feet) in length.

They first place a net on the shore in a perpendicular position and
fastened to poles, and then a second net is cast so as to form with the
first the letter T. At the ends, there are curtains of crescent or polygo-
nal shape, whose concave portion is turned toward what is called the
"wall," viz, the perpendicular net on the shore. The entrance is be-
tween two nets which join the stationary nets in a slanting direction. The
bottom of the apparatus where the fish are caught is likewise formed
by a net.

When the salmon approach the shore, they meet the " wall" and fol-
low it till they enter into the apparatus itself, from which they cannot
escape.

Other stationery nets, simple parts of nets, have only a single "wall,"
and are placed on the shore in a perpendicular position. At the mouth
of the Petshora, one of these "walls" extends as far as five and even
seven "rersts" from the shore, (two and two-thirds miles to four miles.)

Every net is from 40 to 50 "sagenes" (280 to 350 feet) long, with
meshes 3£ inches square, sixteen of which make the height of the net.
A certain number of these nets are tied together, the head bolt-ropes be-
ing fastened to poles driven in at a distance of 15 "sagenes" (105 feet)
from each other. The nets are examined at the time the tide is out, and
the salmon caught in the meshes are taken out. These nets are set dur-
ing the mouth of July, and taken up in September. They also use the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 43

drag-net, which consist of two or three parallel nets, the inner part of
which has small meshes, while the two outer have large ones, or a sin-
gle large-meshed net.

The floating seines used in the Dwina are from 150 to 200 "sagenes"
(1,050 to 1,400 feet) long, seldom as long as 300 "sagenes," (2,100 feet.)
Those of the Petshora are usnsually 200 "sagenes" (1,400 feet) long,
and those of the other rivers from 80 to 100 "sagenes,'' (560 to 700 feet.)
The depth of the seine is from 28 to 32 meshes, each measuring from 2
to 2h square inches. Two boats, at some distance from each other, go
down the stream dragging the net ; they finally approach each other,
and the net is gradually drawn into one of the boats. This fishing is
carried on from the middle of July till the rivers are frozen.

Fishing is also carried on in these streams with floating nets in the
shape of a bag, measuring 2i "sagenes" in length, (17£ feet.)

In the dark autumn nights, the salmon, the pike, and the " lavaretus"
are caught with fish-gigs by torch-light. The fish-gig has the shape of
a fork with three or four prongs, each terminating in a barbed pike. A
fire is made ou a chafing-dish on the prow of the boat, so that the fish
at the bottom of the river can easily be seen and speared. They also
use fish-gigs composed of a whole bunch of prongs.

Preparing the salmon. — Salmon is mostly placed in the market salted,
rarely smoked. The salting is done in the following manner : The
head of the fish is cut off, the belly is opened, and the entrails are
taken out; then it is washed clean and filled with salt ; salt is also put
under the gills, and the scales are usually rubbed with it. They cal-
culate, generally, 17£ pounds of salt to 100 pounds of fish. The quan-
tity of salt to be used depends also on the season of the year and on the
quality of the fish. The best salmon comes from the Onega and the
Dwiua. That of the Petshora is larger and fatter, but it is salted so
little that it becomes worthless.

3. — THE " NAVAGA" (GADUS NAVAGA) AND OTHER SALT-WATER FISH.

The " uavaga " appears in large numbers at the mouths of rivers aud
near the sea-shore toward the end of the autumn. This fish, which is
very voracious, spawns in the autumn. It has an excellent flavor, and
is sent frozen, in enormous quantities, into the interior of Russia as far
as Astrachan, where fish is so plentiful.

In the villages located on the rivers falling into the White Sea,
flounders (Pleuronectes flcsus) and plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) are, when
caught, stuck on small poles, and are thus smoked ; while at Mezeue,
they are salted. In the bay of Kandalakcha, a small kind of cod-fish is
caught, which the fishermen salt exclusively for their own use.

Implements for catching these fish. — A line of twisted horse-hair is
attached to a stick or to a piece of lath, from which hangs a piece of
lead pierced by a strong wire. To the two ends of this wire, aud some-
times also in the middle, thin little horse-hair strings are tied, furnished

44 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

with small fish-hooks. The fisherman makes a hole in the ice, and places
the apparatus in the water, using small fish as baits. He draws it out
soon to plunge it in again, for this fishing is yery productive, a prac-
ticed fisherman often taking not less than 2,000 "navagas " in one short
winter's day.

To fishing-tackle measuring 40 "sageues" (280 feet) in leagth, copper
or wire hooks are attached by means of horse-hair strings 10 inches in
length. The hooks are placed at a distance of three-fourths of an "ar-
sheen" (1 foot 9 inches) from each other, and are baited with small pieces
of herring, or lavaretas, (Coregonus pollcur.) This apparatus is placed in
the spring near the shore.

4. — RIVER AND LAKE FISH.

Among the river-fish, the sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) holds the first
rank. During the second decade of the present century, the sterlet first
commenced to show themselves in the Dwina; then, in 1848 and 1849, in
the Soukhona in large numbers. These precious fish seem to have come
to the Dwina from the Kama through the canals. This fishery is, how-
ever, so far, not very considerable. As regards fresh-water fish, great
quantities of "nalim," (Lota vulgaris;) of " koriouchka, " (Osmerus
eperlanus ;) of Coregonus and of " minoga, " (Petromyzon fluviatilis,) are
caught, these last mentioned chiefly in the Onega, while the "omoul"
(Coregonus omul) and the "nelma, " (Coregonus leucichthys,) the Siberian
salmon, are caught more frequently in the Petshora. Every year, about
100 "pouds" (3,600 pounds) of "minoga" (Petromyzon jluviatilis) are
exported from the town of Onega. Next to the salmon, the " omoul "
(Coregonus omul) finds the best market. They are salted in casks contain-
ing 12 " pouds " (832 pounds) each, reckoning about a pound and a half
of salt to each "poud," (36 pounds.)

The above-mentioned fish are either caught with lines, or with station-
ary nets having meshes from 1£ to 2 inches square. In the lakes, seines
froni60to 100 "sagenes" (420 to 700 feet) in length are used for catching
scaly fish. Unfortunately, the spawn is also taken, especially in the lake
of Koubino. For this purpose, hoop-nets are used with a bag measuring
4 " sagenes" (28 feet) in length. The meshes of the bag are so narrow
that a fly could not pass through. Nine of these meshes measure only
2^ inches, while seven meshes of the wing of the seine measure 2£ inches.
The roe of the " okoune, " (Perca fluviatilis,) and of the " yerschi, " (Acer-
ina vulgaris,) is dried in ovens specially constructed for this purpose,
and is used as a seasoning during Lent.

B— FISHERIES IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN.

1. — FISHERIES ON THE MOURMAN COAST.

The Mourman coast, in Russian Lapland, begins at the Cape of Saints,
the point of demarkatiou between the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean,

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 45

and extends as far as the Norwegian river Worgheina. On this coast-
line of eight hundred " versts," (about four hundred and sixty-one miles,)
there are fine bays offering the fisherman good and safe anchorage. There
are forty-one of these inlets into which rivers fall. At these points, the
fishermen have built huts and sheds and scaffolding of various kinds,
so that the shores of those bays which are frequented most look some-
what like large villages, busy with the excitement of fishing-life. The
fishermen meet there in the spring and remain till the middle of August.
Other auchoring-places, where the coast is almost barren, are frequented
only in June and July by those fishermen who come from the populous
auchoriug-places, or by others who come from Archangel on large boats,
manned by their masters, in order to catch a large number of fish in a
short time.

Species of fish found on the Mourman coast. — The fisheries of the
Mourman coast comprise especially the different varieties of " treska,"
(Gadus morrhua ;) the " kambala," (Pleuronectes fiesus ;) and the "kam-
bala," (Pleuronectes platessa ;) a good many salmon also are caught
near the mouths of the rivers.

Of the cod, the Gadus morrhua is caught most frequently. It spawns
in February and in March, and is caught with baited hooks. For
bait, the fishermen mostly use Mallotus arcticus*, or Ammodytes Ian-
cea, or, in case of necessity, Arenicola piscatorum, a sort of thick worm
dug out from the sand of the beach. The Mallotus arcticus and the
Ammodytes lancea resemble the Osmerus eperlanus, and are, like it, easily
distinguished by a peculiar odor resembling that of the cucumber.
Among the varieties of the cod, there are the Gadus ceglefinus, and the
Gadus virens, the latter called " sa'ida" by the Russians.

The Hippoglossus maximus, Cuv., which the Russians call " paltouss,"
usually weighs 2 " pouds," (72 pounds ;) but near the North Cape some
are caught weighing 15 "ponds," (540 pounds.) The small kinds of
plaice (Pleuronectes platessa, L.) and the Pleuronectes limanda have but
little value as articles of commerce, as likewise the Brosmius vulgaris, a
sort of cod; the Sebastes norvegicus, Cuv., called by the Russians " mors-
ko'i okoune;" and the Anarrhichas lupus, L.

The two kinds of sharks (Scymnus borealis and Selaclw maxima) are
caught only for the sake of their liver, which is used in the manufacture
of cod-liver oil.

Fishing-implements. — The " palangre" consists of a chief line as
thick as a man's finger, and from 33 to 42 " sagenes" (231 to 294 feet)
long, to which small lines of the thickness of a quill are attached at the
distance of If "arskeens" (4 feet 1 inch) from each other. These lines
have baited hooks. A succession of lines tied one to the other forms
what is called in Russian a " yarous," extending from 6 to 10 kilometers
in the sea. This "yarous," or train, is kept by three anchors a little
above the bottom of the sea. Every anchor is attached by a cord to a

*A fish similar to the capelin of the North Atlantic coast.

46 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

buoy, the location of which is indicated to the fishermen by a bunch of
sea- weeds placed vertically on a pole.

The fishermen of the Mourman coast use only English hooks, which
they buy from Norwegian merchants from the towns of Wardoe, Wadsoe,
Hammerfest, and Tromsoe. They cost 8 " roubles" ($5.60 gold) a thou-
sand. Every fishing-boat, called " sehniaka," uses not less than 5,000
hooks a year. These boats are open, and have only one mast, with a
large sail and six oars. They are from 28 to 40 feet long, their breadth
is from 6 to 9 feet, and their draught is 4| feet. Their capacity is from
150 to 250 "pouds," (5,400 to 9,000 pounds.) The price of one of these
boats, completely rigged, is 60 " roubles," ($42 gold.) The fishermen
will go thirty " versts" (upward of seventeen miles) out to sea in these
boats.

Before setting out for the cod fisheries, the fishermen provide themselves
with a quantity of bait for their hooks, to be used on the following day.
They begin to bait the hooks some hours before going to sea, and con-
tinue doing this till they reach the fishing-place. There a train, " yarous,"
is laid, and every six hours the captured fish are taken out. Eeturning
from the fishing-expedition, the nets are hung up to dry on scaffolds
erected for the purpose, after which boys of from nine to thirteen years
put the "palangres" again in order; i. e., disengage the hooks and the
entangled lines.

Strong threads each 1 " arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long, with steel hooks,
are suspended from the two ends of a slightly-curved iron rod. The
hooks are baited. A cord 2 " arsheens " (4 feet 8 inches) long, with a
piece of lead at the end, is attached to a ring at the middle of the rod.
Then the whole is tied to a cord 280 feet in length. This implement is
chiefly used by the Laplanders and by poor fishermen, who have no
means for buying nets.

A large iron hook is moved easily by means of an iron ring with a
pole, to which an iron chain of 4 "arsheens" (80 inches) is attached.
This chain is connected with a cable 200 to 300 "sagenes" (1,400 to
2,100 feet) long, to which a weight of 10 "pouds" (360 pounds) is
attached. Roasted phoca-fat is used for bait. In order to attract the
sharks, large pieces of fat are placed in the deep sea in perforated boxes.
The voracious shark rushes with avidity at the choice morsel of fat
which is baited on the hook, and he is caught. To bring the captured
shark to the surface of the water, a winch kept on the boat for the
purpose is employed. When brought up, he is killed; the belly is
opened, the liver is taken out, and he is then again thrown into the
water. But in order that the body may not sink to the bottom and
become the prey of other sharks, it is inflated with air by means of a
long tube passed into the inside of the fish. In summer, the shark is
caught at a depth varying between 100 and 300 " sagenes," (700 and
2,100 feet;) sometimes at 100 "versts," (about 57£ miles;) while in the
autumn he is caught near the coast. It often happens that during the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 47

few hours of an autumn day four fishermen catch sharks enough to
yield as much as 100 "pouds" (3,G00 pounds) of liver. The inhabitants
of Kola catch the shark under the ice.

The small species of cod called Gadus virens is chiefly caught in July
and August, when it rises to the surface of the sea in enormous schools.
These small fish are caught like a large " carrelet," (a sort of square net
fixed on a pole,) or globe, which hangs down in the shape of a bag, sur-
rounded by a bolt-rope of the thickness of a finger. Every side of the
net is from 15 to 17 " sagenes," (105 to 119 feet) long, and the meshes are
an inch square. To the four ends long cords are attached, by means of
which the fishermen keep the globe up and extended.

For this operation, four boats are required, each manned by three fish-
ermen. As soon as a school of cod approaches, the fishermen cast the
net into the water, first by the side of the school, and then they manage
to get it underneath. To effect this, the cords attached to the four
corners must be stretched evenly by the four boats. As soon as the
net is placed horizontally beneath the school, the fish are frightened by
yelling, striking the water with the oars, and by throwing stones into
the sea, so that the fish, desiring to sink to the bottom of the sea,
become entangled in the net which is below them. When this has been
done, the four boats lift up the net by a regular movement. This fishery
is very productive, each boat often receiving as its share about 200
" pouds" (7,200 pounds) of cod.

The small fish mentioned above, which resemble the Osmerus cper-
lanus, and are used as a bait for cod-fishing, are caught with hoop-nets
30 " sagenes" (210 feet) long. The meshes of the bags of these nets are
so narrow that 44 of them make 7 square inches. When they have
caught with the hoop-net 6 "pouds" (216 pounds) of these fish, it is con-
sidered sufficient to bait about 3,000 hooks on the following day.

Preparing the various products of the fisheries. — Among the various
kinds of cod, the Gadus morrhua and the Gadus virens are salted or
dried, according to the season, while the Gadus ccglefiuus is almost
always salted. The Hippoglossus maximus and the Anarrhicas lupus are
only salted without cutting off the head, as is done with the different
kinds of cod.

The way to prepare the cod is as follows : The head of the fish is cut
off; then it is split open along the back, so that the vertebral column
adheres to one-half. Then the belly is opened, and the liver and entrails
are taken out j after which it is washed, and brought to the huts to be
salted or suspended on poles to dry.

In the huts, the halves of the fish are laid out in rows, the side
of the skin turned back, and every row is covered with a thick layer of
salt,

They generally reckon from 17 to 20 " pouds " (612 to 780 pounds) of
salt to 100 "pouds" (3,000 pounds) of cod-fish; and from 7 to 9 "pouds"
(252 to 324 pounds) of salt to 100 "pouds" (3,600 pounds) of "pilchoni,"

48 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

or Garfus cegUfinas. The same quantity of Hippoglossus maximus requires
25 " pouds" (900 pounds) of salt. On the Mournian coast, Spanish and
English salt are used, which can be imported duty-free. Wealthy fish-
ermen usually buy their stock of salt in Norway, and sell some of it
again to the poorer fishermen.

The cod salted in the spring are taken to Archangel in large sail-boats,
and are much sought after as being freshly salted. The cod salted in
the summer are carried in large boats, called in Eussian " ladya,"
which come from Archangel for this purpose. During the time of lad-
ing, and as long as the boats are at anchor near the fishing-places, the
fishermen continue to salt, on board their boats, the fish taken during
this time.

The cod is dried from the beginning of the fishing till the middle of
May. The Eussian fishermen do not take out the vertebral column as
the Norwegians do. They split the back of the fish and open the belly,
so that the two halves are connected only by the tail. The cod dried in
this manner is by the Eussians called " rochkirka," and by the Norwe-
gians " roskaer." In Norway, they also prepare "rondfish," which the
Eussians call " rountovka." For this purpose, the head of the fish is cut
off, and the belly is opened, but without flattening the opened fish.
They are then tied two and two by the tails and hung on poles to dry.
The Eussians do not prepare what the Norwegians call " klipfisk," that
is, codfish salted and then dried.

As soon as the drying is done, the fish are taken from the poles, and
heaped up like wood, placing on the top of each heap boards weighted
down by stones, in order to flatten those fish which, while drying, may
have become warped.

The dried cod is shipped from Archangel to St. Petersburg and to
the districts of Olonets and Vologda. About 30,000 « pouds " (1,080,000
pounds) of dried cod arrive every year at St. Petersburg, and scarcely
5,600 "pouds" (201,600 pounds) of salted cod. The chief market for
salt cod is the district of Archangel, especially the rural districts.

The heads of the cod-fish are generally thrown away, but sometimes
the largest are gathered and spread on rocks to dry. They are taken to
Archangel, where 50 " kopecks' 7 (35 cents) are paid for a " poud," (36
pounds.) The chief buyers of this vile food are the peasants of the dis-
trict of Pinega, who live in the most wretched manner.

The tongues of the cod-fish are salted separately, 15 pounds of salt
being used to 100 pounds of tongues. These salted tongues are sold
at Archangel at 4 "kopecks" (2| cents) a kilogram. From April till
the middle of August, every boat can gather, if the fishing is good,
about 1,600 kilograms of cod-fish tongues.

The swimming-bladder of the cod also forms an article of trade in
the shape of fish-glue, after having been carefully washed, laid out, and
dried. Packed in parcels of from 6 to 10 pounds, this fish-glue usually
sells at Archangel for only 18 "kopecks" (12£ cents) a kilogram.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 49

The liver of the cod-fish is gathered in tubs, and exposed to the heat of
the sun. After ten days, a coating of oil of amber-color is found swim-
ming at the top, which is skimmed and sold in casks containing from S
to 10 "ponds," (288 to 3G0 pounds.) Three '-pouds" (108 pounds) of
liver usually yield i " pond " (30 pounds) of oil. The cod-liver oil sells
at 2 "roubles" ($1.40 gold) a " poud," (30 pounds.) The residue is
cooked, and produces a dark brown oil, which costs less than the first-
mentioned kind. One " poud " (30 pounds) of this oil is usually obtained
from 2 " ponds" (72 pounds) of the residue. The dark and burned mat-
ter remaining at the bottom of the kettles is sold to the Norwegians,
who pay 1£ " roubles" ($1.05 gold) or a bottle of rum for a barrel, and
use it as grease.

Organization of the fisheries. — The financial condition of the fisher-
men, as regards both their mutual relations and their relations to their
masters, varies according as the fisheries on the Mourmau coast are
carried on by fishermen who have established themselves there perma-
nently, or by those who only stay there during the summer-months.

Among the permanent inhabitants of the Mourmau coast are the
inhabitants of the little town of Kola, and the Laplanders who live in
the neighborhood. Those fishermen who have their own boats and fish-
ing-implements buy on credit from the rich merchants of Kola all that
is required for their households, and pay in kind, i. e., by fish. The
price of the fish is fixed by the merchant himself, to whom the fishermen,
are bound to deliver the fish caught during the spring-fisheries, which
season is generally considered as continuing till the 29th of June. If'
their debts have been paid before this time, the merchant pays the fish-
ermen up to the 29th of June in cash, the price determined beforehand
for each fish delivered. After that time, the fishermen are at liberty to
sell their fish to whom they please, and can fix their own price. Tlie
principal buyers at this time are the fishermen who sail for Norway to
exchange fish, or those who come from there. In the autumn, the men.
lay iu fish for their own winter-provision ; but as soon as the frosts com-
mence, they again deliver the frozen fish to the merchants, who send,
them to St. Petersburg. Iu the middle of December, the fishing stops,
entirely, to recommence three months later.

The poor inhabitants of the town of Kola, and most of the Laplanders,
work as day -laborers with the merchants, and receive a certain share of
the f»sh delivered to the merchants. The merchants furnish them fish-
ing-implements and provisions, but they must generally pay for the boats
from their own funds. The merchants divide the proceeds of the fish-
eries with their laborers, and buy their share of fish from them at a price
fixed beforehand.

The organization of the fisheries of the " pomortsi," who only fish for

some months on the Mourmau coast, is entirely different. They form

fishing-associations, each member receiving a certain portion of the
4 F

50 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

whole number of fish caught, while the largest portion goes to the head
of the association, who defrays all the expenses.

Formerly, the inhabitants of Archangel andKholmogori likewise fished
on the Mourmau coast ; but at present the fisheries are almost exclusively
carried on by the fishermen of the district of Keme and Gn6ga. Those fish-
ermen who have the means to build small houses, depots, and sheds on
the coast, as well as large and small boats, and to provide fishing-imple-
ments and the necessary provisions, become independent master-fisher-
men, and form associations, of which they become the leaders, and which
are usually composed of four fishermen. The laborers hire themselves
out, and receive in return part of the fish which have been caught.

The head of the association engages his laborers in the autumn or the
beginning of the winter; gives them money to buy provisions for them-
selves and their families ; and defrays all their expenses. Every head
of an association has an anchoring-place in some bay on the Monrmau
coast. Thither he sends his laborers. These set out on their long and
difficult journey about the middle of March. According to an ancient
custom, the master (head of association) gives them a feast on the eve
of their departure, and presents each with a piece of cloth sufficient for
a pair of gloves. The pilot of the boat, and those laborers who have to
draw the net, receive two pairs of gloves.

They reach the village of Kandalachka with tolerable ease, for the
roads lead through well-known villages, where they are well received
and conveyed on sleighs. But from Kandalachka to Kola and the vil-
lage of Eazuavoloki, a distance of nine hundred "versts," (about five
hundred and eighteen miles,) they are obliged to perform the journey on
foot, dragging their clothes and provisions after them on little sleds.
From Raznavoloki to the fishing-places, they travel in sleighs drawn
by reindeer, at the expense of the master ; and from Kola on boats,
with wooden runners. They hoist the large sail, and the wind drives
them rapidly to the open sea. Having arrived at the place of their
destination, they immediately set to work. They have to remove the
masses of snow under which the huts and sheds are almost buried, to
repair the boats, to get the fishing-implements iuto working-order; and,
after all this has been done, they go to sea.

The money-value of the fishing is divided in the following manner : The
master first takes two-thirds, and the laborers divide the other third, so
that every laborer receives one-twelfth. If every one of them receives
100 " roubles" ($70 gold) as his share, the total sum realized by the fishing
has been 1,200 " roubles," ($840 gold.) The pilot, who has to lead tlie ex-
pedition, must keep order among the laborers, and watch over the inter-
ests of the master, for which he receives a certain pro rata of the eight-
twelfths which come to the master, and, moreover, a certain fee, which is
fixed beforehand, and which varies from 10 to 50 4i roubles," ($7 to $35.)
In this manner, the master's portion amounts to 20 forty-eighths, while
the combined portions of the four laborers amount to 19 forty-eighths, of

FISHEEIES AND SBAL-HUNTING. 51

the whole sum. At tirst sight, it might be thought that the masters make
a considerable profit, and that the laborers are working at a disadvan-
tage. This, however, is not the case ; for the sum which the laborers
receive is the actual pay for their labor, while the master must deduct
from his portion a large amount for the boats, fishing-implements, salt,
&c. These expenses are seldom less than 250 "roubles," ($175 gold,)
so that, as a general rule, the laborers work on favorable conditions.

The trade with Noncay. — The bartering-trade with Norway has been
going on since the second half of the last century, and is increasing from
year to year. The Russian vessels, laden with rye -flour, wheat-flour, mil-
let, and oat-meal, are obliged to put into one of the four Norwegian
ports of Wardoe, Wadsoe, Hammerfest, and Tromsoe, to declare their
cargoes and to pay the duty ; rye-flour, oat-meal, and building-materials
alone being free of duty. The Russian government, upon its part, au-
thorizes the citizens and peasauts inhabiting the coast of the White Sea
to export rye-flour and oat-meal to Norway, while the merchants of the
first guild have the right to trade in other articles. The Norwegian
authorities are very strict in their watch over the coast. As soon as
the Russian sailors have been authorized to commence their bartering-
trade, they sail for the different bays of the coast, where they have least
competition to fear, and there exchange their cargoes of rye-flour and
oat-meal for fish.

The Norwegian government allows the inhabitants of Finnmarken,
during six weeks, viz, from the 1st of July to the 15th of August, (new
style,) this bartering-trade with the Russian fishermeu, who are also
allowed to sell their goods for cash only to merchants. But when a
Russian vessel has been in Norwegian waters for six weeks, it can also
sell rye-flour to the inhabitants for cash, on condition that the regular
terms of the bartering-trade are not exceeded, and not less than three
bags to one buyer. The Russiau fishermen find it much to their advan-
tage to barter their cargoes for fish. They usually receive, for one
"poud" (30 pounds) of rye-flour, from three to five "pouds" (108 to
180 pounds) of cod-fish, or four to eight "pouds" (144 to 2S8 pounds)
of saida, (a small kind of cod-fish.) The Russian fishermen usually
exchange a portion of their rye-flour and their oat-meal for fish, and the
other portion for walrus- skins.

From 400 to 500 Russian ships, manned by more than 2,000 men,
devote themselves every year to this bartering-trade. It may be safely
asserted that they export annually from Norway about 700,000 " pouds"
(25,200,000 pounds) of fish. In 1800, the export amounted to a million
of " pouds," (30,000,000 pounds,) because the cod-fisheries, and especially
that of the " saida," had been particularly rich.

The average prices at Archangel during the years from 1852 to 1800
w T ere as follows : Salt cod, GO to 75 " kopecks " (42 to 52 cents) per
"poud," (3G pounds ;) dried cod, 1 "rouble " to 1£ "roubles," (70 cents
to $1.05 gold ;) salted " saida," 20 to 30 " kopecks/(14 to 21 cents gold ;)

52 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

dried " saida," 1 " rouble" to 1 "rouble" 20 " kopecks," (70 cents to
84 cents gold ;) cod-liver oil, 2 " roubles " to 2 " roubles " 20 " kopecks,"
(81.40 to $1.54;) dried cod-fish heads, 10 " kopecks," (7 cents,)

2. — FISHERIES AT NOVAYA-ZEMLYA.

Between the years 1830 and 1840, Novaya-Zemlya was visited by con-
siderable numbers of " pomortsi," inhabitants of Mezene, and fishermen
from the Gulf of the Petshora, and every year large sailing-vessels
brought thence rich cargoes of salmon or trout, of seals and walruses.
After that, the product of the fisheries and of the chase diminished ;
the animals left their usual places of abode and removed to others less
accessible. The fishermen consequently ceased going to Novaya-Zemlya,
so that in 1850 and 1SG0 only five vessels sailed for that group of islands.

The northern island of JSTovaya-Zemlya is most frequented by fisher-
men, while those who have strong and well-equipped vessels venture
as far north as Matoschkine. The arrangements are made so as to ar-
rive toward the end of June at Novaya-Zemlya, where the fishermen
commence their work by hunting the seals and the walrus, and after-
ward devote themselves to fishing for the common trout, the variety
called Salmo alpinus, which the Eussians call "golets." This little fish,
which only weighs four pounds, enters the rivers in large numbers dur-
ing the spawning-season, when it is caught by means of small bars and
leaps. They are fished for in the sea with seines and stationary nets.
Every boat usually contains three seines aud six stationary nets. The
"golets" fishery is always productive; for during its stay in these lati-
tudes, every boat catches about 300 " ponds" (10,800 pounds) of this
fish. A " poud " (36 pounds) of salted " golets " costs 3 " roubles," ($2.10.)
In 1830, and during the three following years this fishery was so extraor-
dinarily abundant that the fishermen were obliged to throw a large
number of " golets " into the sea, because tbey had not salt enough. In
1852, the fisheries were also productive ; the stationary nets contained
on an average 20 " ponds " (720 pounds) of this fish, and one fisherman
caught 480 " pouds" (17,280 pounds) in a single day.

The u golets" fishery ceases in the middle of August, and the fisher-
men sail for the " Iron Gate," the narrow channel which separates the
northern island of Novaya-Zemlya from the island of Vaigatck, where
they hunt the walrus.

The fishermen always try to be at home again in September; most of
them dread the idea of spending the winter in Novaya-Zemlya, on account
of its severe and unhealthy climate, Some men, however, from the Gulf
of the Petshora, always spend the winter there.

The species sought. — Seven different kinds of animals living in the
sea are hunted on the northern coast of Eussia for their fat and their
skin. These are the "nerpa," (Phoca anneallta and Phoca vitulina, L,;)
the "zayats," (Phoca barbata, Nils.;) the "lysoune," (Phoca grcenlandica,
Mull. ;) the " tevyak," (Cystophora cristata, Nils.;) the " morje," (Trichccus

FISHERIES AND SBAL-HUNTING. 53

rosmarus;) and the li belouga," (Delphinapterus leucas, Pull.;) i. e., hve
kinds of seals, the walrus, and the white orca.

The walrus is caught on the coasts of Novaya-Zeinlya and the islands
of Vaigatch and Kalgouyew ; the "tevyak " on the Mourinau coast, very
rarely in the White Sea ; the orca is caught in the White Sea by ineaus
of nets; the small seals and the " zayats " are shot with guns from the
coast, or are killed with boat-hooks when they assemble in flocks on the
ice with the " lysounes."

b. Seal hunting. — On the eastern coast of the White Sea, the " Winter
Coast," as it is called, and in the bays of the Dwiua aud the Mezeue, and
on the coast of Kauine, they chiefly hunt the species of phoca called
Phoca groenlandica. This phoca is larger than the kiud found in the
Caspian Sea, and usually yields six "pouds" (210 pounds) of fat. It is
killed on the ice.

These animals live in the high regions of the Polar Seas from May
till September, and only a few occassionally show themselves in the
White Sea; but, later, they make their appearance in the gulfs and
bays of the Arctic Ocean, where the females give birth to their young,
and feed them. These animals pair in the beginning of February, on the
ice in the White Sea, aud especially in the Gulf of the Dwina.

At this time the hunting commences on the "Winter Coast" and lasts
till the end of March.

The huntsmen care fully observe from the eoast the movment of the float-
ing ice. High wooden towers are erected for this purpose all along the shore,
whence the observers watch the horizon with telescopes and when the have
discovered an encampment of phocse, they decide whether it is possible
to get to them, and whether it is worth while to give them chase. Small
hunting-sheds are also built along the coast, each of which can accom-
date as many as twenty huntsmen. As soon as the phocce show them-
selves at a short distance from the shore, the huntsmen venture on the
floating ice, drawing a small boat after them, and they kill the young phocae
by blow with their boat-hooks, and the old ones by gunshots. In order to
approach the phocae as near as possible, the hunters make use of the follow-
ing ruse : They make themselves, as it were, invisible by muffling up
in long and large and white shirts, aud by advancing slowly aud noise-
lessly on the snow. When the chase is over, the dead animals are at
once skinned aud dragged on shore. They usually kill only those which
they can take with them for the wind easily drives the ice far away,
and the booty would be lost to the huntsmen, who themselves are often
exposed to the greatest dangers.

This chase takes place on the "Winter Coast," extendiug over a space
of four hundred " versts," (two hundred and thirty miles ;) and numerous
huntsmen meet there from the districts of Archaugel, Pinega, and Me-
zene. The principal place of meeting, and at which generally two thou-
sand huntsmen assemble, is called Kedy, and is located twelve " versts "
(about seven miles) from Cape Voronov. The huntsmen have built at

54 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

this place about one hundred huts, where there is constant excitement
from February till the. end of March, while during the rest of the year
these huts are deserted.

About the middle of March, the young phocse are large enough to
leave the ice and swim toward the open sea, whither the old ones do not
follow them. They assemble in the Gulf of Mezene, where they rest on
the ice and pair. The pieces of ice in the gulf are sheltered from the
wind, and are not carried about by the waves, although they melt a
little, especially during the rainy periods.

Numerous societies of huntsmen assemble in the beginning of April
at the mouth of the river Koulo'i, in order to follow for several weeks
the chase of the phocse on the ice. They use sailing-vessels 22 feet
long, with an iron-plated bottom. Every vessel is manned by seven
huntsmen, is completely equipped, and furnished with provisions aud
fuel.

The huntsmen all leave the shore at the same time; and, having
reached the floating ice, they draw their vessels on the ice, and there
establish a vast encampment. The younger and more active huntsmen
are sent out to reconnoiter. Provided with snow-shoes, they hasten in
ail directions to search for the phocse. As soon as they observe a flock,
they advise the other huntsmen of the fact, and these all run toward
the spot, drawing their boats after them. Having arrived withiu gun-
shot distance, the most expert are placed in the front rank and com-
mence the chase; for every shot must kill, and not merely wound, lost
the cries of the wounded phocse frighten the whole flock and make them
speed away. The animals which are killed are then placed in the boats,
and the huntsmen return to the shore — sometimes on the ice, sometimes
on the open sea — to deposit there the result of the chase, and bring new
provisions to the comrades who had been left there.

The huntsmen usually receive from their master, provisions and cloth-
ing for the whole season, and must give him in return half or even two-
thirds of all the animals which have been killed. The more hardened
and expert a huntsman is, the larger is his share. Every society of
twenty huntsmen elects a " starosta," (the old one*) whose duty it is to
guard the coast and prepare the food, without receiving for this a larger
share than the other huntsmen.

On the western coast of the White Sea, (called the Terski coast,) the
phocse-chase is not as productive as on the eastern coast, because the
pieces of ice, driven toward the north, float along the shore. Scarcelj T
more than 15,000 "pouds" (540,000 pounds) of phocse are caught there
every year.

In these latitudes, the principal meeting-place of the huntsmen is six-
teen " versts" (about nine miles) north of the river Pouoi, and is called
Deviataya. Huts are built here, and about five hundred huntsmen
assemble, who form themselves into societies. Every society is composed
of a master and three huntsmen. While one of the members of the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 55

society remains on shore with his sleigh and his reindeer, the other three
venture on the pieces of ice to discover the phocse, which are sleeping
there. Every huntsman wears over his clothes a short cloak of reindeer-
skin, called " sovik," and has on his feet large boots lined with far. At
the end of a long strap passed over his shoulder he draws a small boat,
weighing 20 kilograms. A game-bag with provisions is attached to
his belt. Flis gun on his shoulder, and having in his hand a loug stick,
with an iron point, he rapidly and skillfully advances, by means of his
snow-shoes, over the vast fields of snow and ice. The hunter who leads
directs his course by a mariner's compass, and with his iron-pointed
stick constantly tries the firmness of the ice. He acts as guide, and
his two comrades follow him in single file, drawing their boat after
them. When they have arrived at an expanse of water where phocse
are swimming, two of the huntsmen fire, while the third pushes the
boat into the water in order to take up the dead animals, which he
hoists into the boat by means of a boat-hook.

The chase commences early in the morning, and the huntsmen do not
return to their hut till evening ; a flag hoisted on the shore indicating
to them its position.

b. The chase of the white orca. — The white orca, (Delphinapterus leacas,
Pall.,) in Eussian " belouga," (the fishers of the Caspian Sea also call
the great sturgeon " belouga,"] is found nearly all the time in the White
Sea in large numbers, but chiefly in June and July. The young orcse
begin to swim in May ; their color is a bluish-gray, while that of the old
ones is yellowish.

The orcse are caught in all the bays of the Polar Sea, especially on
the Kanine coast near Mezene ; in the White Sea ; and at the mouths
of the Petshora. The fishing-implements used are seines joined together
and fish-gigs.

In the summer, when the weather is calm and beautiful, large flocks
of orcse can be seen approaching the shallow places near the shore, or
between the numerous islands of the White Sea. Several fishermen
associate for hunting orcse, each one furnishing a boat, and a large seine
made of cords of the thickness of a finger, the meshes being 10i inches
square. The length of the net is 125 " sagenes," (875 feet,) and its
depth C " sagenes," (42 feet.) The upper bolt-rope is furnished with
wooden floats 1 "arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long, and placed at the dis-
tance of 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) from each other; the lower bolt-
rope has no ballast. These nets weigh about 23 " pouds," (828 pounds,)
and cost 150 " roubles," ($105 gold.)

A society has usually eight boats, each being manned by four fisher-
men besides the master, to whom the boat and the seine belong. The
fishing commences at the end of Juue. The fishermen cast anchor near
a group of islands, and wait impatiently for the watchmen to give the
signal that a flock of orcse is approaching. As soon as the signal is
given, they row rapidly toward the place designated, taking good care,

5G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

however, not to fish in deeper water than 5 " sagenes," (35 feet,) lest the
net, which is only 6 " sagenes " (42 feet) deep, as has been said before,
should prove useless.

At first, the boats row without order ; but as soon as they approach the
orcse, they place themselves in the following manner : the two middle
boats approach each other and remain in the rear, while the others ad-
vance to the right and left, keeping at a distance of 120 " sagenes " (81
feet) from each other, i. e., almost the length of the seine. In order that
the fishing should be successful, it is necessary that the boats should
advance, remaining always two and two, at the same depth ; afterward,
they must halt at some distance from the orcse, and cast all the nets at
the same time, after having tied them to each other. In this manner,
the orcse are surrounded, and endeavor in vain to break through. The
circle is constantly growing narrower, and the orcae are finally har-
pooned with fish-gigs having short handles, which are easily detached.
The iron of the fish-gig is not beyond the fisherman's control, as it is
ioined to the hand by a cord used for pulling up the instrument and
the pierced orca.

If the orcce enter iut j a small bay, their retreat is cut off by means of
large stationary seines, and they are easily captured.

Hunting the walrus and the polar bear. — About a dozen sailing-ves-
sels devote themselves habitually to hunting the walrus from Cape
Kanine to the mouth of the Kara. Every boat can carry 500 " pouds,"
(18,000 pounds,) and is manned by ten huntsmen, mostly inhabitants of
Mezene and the Petshora Basin ; sometimes, also, by well-to-do Samo-
yeds. The " Zyriauy " and the poor Samoyeds serve among the Rus-
sians as laborers for very small pay and food.

In order not to expose these badly-built and badly-rigged boats to the
dangers of the ocean, they are transported to the open sea, a distance
of at least three hundred "versts" (one hundred and seventy-three
miles) on sleighs drawn by reindeer. The expenses of this transporta-
tion, which are considerable, are repaid to the master, as he, besides
receiving his share for each boat, receives three more portions of the
whole product of the chase, which is divided into ten portions. The wal-
rus-chase, in general, is but slightly productive. Scarcely more than
six hundred of these animals are killed during a year. There are not
sufficient funds to equip boats and to pay skillful and experienced
huntsmen.

The polar bears live on the ice, on the islands, or on the coast. An
experienced huntsman lets the animal approach within ten paces before
he fires. If the bear is only wounded, the huntsman draws his huutiug-
kuif'e, avoids the attack of the furious animal by leaping aside, and the
moment he finds himself behind the bear he kills him. Nothing is more
curious than the guns with which these hardy huntsmen attack the
polar bears ; they are simply manufactured by the village-smith ! If
the gun is not discharged, and the bear escapes, the huntsman values

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 57

his loss at 15 "roubles," ($10.50;) but if the same accident happens with
a walrus, his loss amounts to 60 " roubles," ($42.) It is not necessary
to remark that the huntsman is often in danger of losing his life.

Preparing the oil. — From the fat of the animals which are hunted
or fished for in the sea, as well as from the blubber of the whales which
sometimes approach the coast of Lapland when the tide comes in, and
which remain on dry land when the tide goes out again, an oil is pre-
pared, which forms an important article of commerce.

In nearly all the coast- villages of the White Sea, there are oil-manu-
factories. The oil is prepared in the following manner : The fat, which
has been secured by scraping, is thrown into large tubs and well shaken ;
the tubs are then exposed for some days to the heat of the sun. After
this time, a layer of clear, limpid oil forms upon the surface, its color
being yellowish ; this is the first quality. The second quality is obtained
by melting the residue of the scraped fat with the pieces of cut fat in a
caldron containing a small quantity of water; this oil has a dark- brown
color. The caldrons used for this purpose generally hold from 30 to GO
"pouds" (1,080 to 2,100 pounds) of fat; but the Archangel merchants,
who send large quantities abroad, have in some villages caldrons holding
from SO to 120 " ponds " (2,880 to 4,320 pounds) of fat. In from ten to
twelve hours, the whole mass is melted, and the oil is poured into casks
holding from 20 to 32 "ponds," (720 to 1,152 pounds.) A " poud" of fat
of the white orca usually yields 32 pounds of oil, while a "poud"
of fat yields only 30. As regards the fat itself, the walrus, on an
average, yields from 10 to 28 " pouds," (300 to 1,028 pounds;) the white
orca, from 15 to 25 "pouds," (540 to 930 pounds;) and of the different
species of seal, the Oystophora cristata yields 9 "pouds," (324 pounds;)
the Phoca grcenlandica, from 4 to "pouds," (114 to 210 pounds;) the
Phoca annellata, 3 "pouds," (108 pounds;) and young seal with white
fur, 1£ "pouds," (54 pounds.)

Preparing and cutting the skins. — The skins of the Phoca grcenlan-
dica are bought by some merchants of Archangel, who salt them down
in casks and send them abroad. These casks contain from 50 to 80 skins
each, and they usually reckon from 2£ to 4 pounds of salt to each skin.
Most of the skins of seals, orcse, and walruses are used in the vil-
lages themselves.

When the skins have remained in the water for some time, and have
lost all their hair, they are dried and tanned, and straps are made of
them.

The skin of a large orca is cut into four straps, two from the back and
two from the sides ; that of a small orca, into three, two from the
sides and one from the back. These straps are tanned and made into
soles of boots and shoes and into harness. The skin of an orca can be
made into from four to six pairs of reins and twelve pairs of soles.

From the skin of the Phoca grcenlandica 70 "sage^nes" (490 feet) can
be cut.

58 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The huntsmen derive the greatest profit, however, from the skins of
the walruses. The Russian fishermen, especially the "proniortsi," barter
rye-flour very advantageously in Norway for walrus-skins. They usually
get for 10 "pouds" (300 pounds) of flour two walrus-skins, which they
sell at Archangel for 10 "roubles" ($7 gold) apiece.

The monks of the convent of Solovetsk prepare the skin of the Phoca
annellata iu an admirable manner. The skins of polar bears cost 8
" roubles" ($5.00) apiece at Archangel. They are warm and durable,
but they are seldom tanned.

C— FISHING AND SEAL-HUNTING IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The Caspian Sea, with an area of 147,000 square miles, furnishes,
perhaps, a greater quantity of fish than any other basin in Europe hav-
ing the same extent. This also applies to the rivers falling into it: the
Ural, the Volga, the Terek, the Koura, and the Sefid-Roud. It can be
proved that the amount of fish caught is constantly increasing. Not
less than 11,000,000 "pouds" (390,000,000 pounds) of fish are annually
caught in the waters of the Caspian Sea.

The cause of this great abundance of fish must be found in the
character of the water, which is but little salty, in the shallowness of
the sea, and iu the existence of numerous excellent spawning-places,
especially iu the immense delta of the Volga.

In the northern basin of the Caspian Sea, where the most important
fisheries are located, the sea is shallowest, the greatest depth being about
8 "sageues," (50 feet.) The southern and middle portions of this sea are,
however,- very deep; but no fishing is carried on there. In the northern
basin, the water is scarcely brackish, often entirely sweet, particularly
when there is a north wind, which carries the waters of the Ural and
the Volga far out into the sea. The rivers falling into the Caspian Sea
carry into it great masses of organic matter, which furnishes abundant
food for the fish.

The delta of the Volga forms a vast net-work of long, narrow, and
shallow lakes, called "limans," which are joined to each other, or to va-
rious branches of the Volga, by a large number of small watercourses ;
and here the fish find a peaceful retreat during the spawning-season.

1. — FISH FOUND IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The cartilaginous fish or sturgeons are principally found in the Cas-
pian Sea and its tributaries, among which the Volga, with its immense
basin, is the most important. The Russian fishermen call these fish
"red fish." In the Caspian Sea and its tributaries, the following species
of fish are found, of which the Russian name is always given first.

1. "Belouga," (Acipenser huso,) with an average weight of 3 "pouds,"
(108 pounds,) but frequently weighing from 20 to 25 "pouds," (720 to
000 pounds,) and occasionally as much as from 40 to 00 "pouds," (1,440
to 2,100 pounds.) In the year 1709, a " belouga" was caught in a bay

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 59

not far from the mouth of the Ural, weighing 70 "pouds," (2,520 pounds,)
and containing 25 " pouds" (900 pounds) of roe. In 1S13, one was caught
in the Volga, near Saratow, weighing 80 "ponds," (2,880 pounds,) and
containing 10 " pouds" (376 pounds) of roe. In 1843, one of GO " pouds "
(2,160 pounds) was caught; and, in 1819, one of 40 "pouds," (1,440
pounds,) measuring 2 " sagenes" (14 feet) in length. In 1854, a sturgeon
was caught near Kazan and Nijni-Novgorod, weighing 60 "pouds,"
(2,160 pounds,) whose head alone weighed 17 "pouds," (612 pounds;)
and another weighing 53 "pouds," (1,908 pounds.) In 1871, a " belouga"
weighing 63 "pouds" (2,268 pounds) was caught near Derbent at a
depth of 130 " sagenes," (910 feet.)

2. "Osetre," (Acipenser Guldensicidtii.) Its average weight is 30
pounds ; but many are caught in the Volga measuring from 4 to 6 feet,
and weighing from 1 to 3 " pouds," (36 to 108 pounds,) sometimes weigh-
ing even 5 "pouds," (180 pounds,) and measuring from 6 to 9 feet in
length. This fish is exceedingly prolific. M. Baer, a member of the
academy, has found 600,000 eggs in one large-sized fish, and 200,000 in
a medium -sized one.

3. " Sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus.) Average weight, 15 pounds.
It is caught in enormous quantities in the Koura, most of them weigh-
ing about 1 " poud," (36 pounds.)

4. "Chyp," (Acipenser Scliypa.) In the Ural. Weight, 1£ "pouds," (54
pounds.)

5. " Sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) sterlet. Two feet long ; weight,
from 15 to 20 pounds.

6. "Som," (Silurus glanis,) Wels; sheat-fish. Length, from 3 to 6 feet;
weight, as much as 6 " pouds," (216 pounds.) It is very common in the
Koura, where it sometimes attains a weight of 8 "pouds," (2S8 pounds,)
and a length of 1£ "sagenes," (10J feet.)*

7. " Belorybitsa," the "nelnia" of the northern rivers, (Coregonus leu-
cicMliys, Giildenst.,) an excellent fish, also known as the white Siberian
salmon, is found in the Volga, rarely in the Ural, and not at all in the
Terek and Koura. It weighs from 12 to 17 pounds, sometimes as much
as 30 pounds, and measures 3 feet in length.

8. " Lososs," (Salmo solar,) salmon. Is common in the Terek and
the Koura, very rare in the Volga, and never found in the Ural.

9. " Chemaya," (Aspius clupeoides, Pall.) Is only found in the Koura
and the Terek.

10. " Saz&ne," {Cypnnus carpio, L.,) carp. In the Caspian Sea and
near the mouths of the Volga. Often from 3 to 4 feet long, and weigh-
ing from 40 to 50 pounds. Average weight, from 10 to 17 pounds.

11. "Karass," (Carassius vulgaris,) crucian carp. Common in the
Volga. The largest are one foot long, and weigh 5 pounds.

12. " Soudak," (Lucioperca sandra,) saudre. From 15 to 20 pounds.

*This is the European representation of tbe fresh-water catfish or bull-heads of the
United States.— S. F. B.

GO EEPOET OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHEEIES.

13. " Bersche," (Lucioperca volgensis.) Five pounds.

14. " Linn," {Tinea vulgaris,) tench. The largest measure 2 feet in
length, and weigh 7 pounds.

15. " Ousatche," (Barbus obtuslrostris, Yakovlew.) Bare in the Volga ;
common in the Koura.

16. "Piskar," {Gobio fluviatilis, Cuv.) Three inches long.

17. " Lestche," (Abramis brama.) From 8 to 10 pounds.

18. "Yersche," (Acerina cernua.) Usually 7 inches, but sometimes
reaching 10 inches.

19. "Okoune," {Perca fluviatilis,) perch. From 3 to 4 pounds.

20. " Sinetse," {Abramis ballerus, Cuv.) Found chiefly in the Volga ;
10 inches long, and weighing rarely more than half a pound.

21. " Sopa," {Abramis sopa, Pall.) Common in the Volga.

22. " Goustera," {Blicca bicerna.) Thirteen inches ; 2 pounds.

23. " Tck^khonne," {Pelecus cultratus, Agass.) Two feet; 2* pounds.

24. " Oukleika," {Albumus lucidus, Heck.) From 4 to 6 inches.

25. "Jerekk"and " che'vesper," (Aspiusrapax.) Length, 2^ feet; weight,
16 pounds.

26. " Taranne," {Scardinius erythrophthalmus, L.) Scarcely a foot
long ; common in the Volga. " Taranne" is the collective name of sev-
eral species of Leuciscus and Abramis; but, in the Don and the Azov Sea,
the name "Taranne" is only given to .Leuciscus Heckelii, Nordtn.

27. "Vobla," {Leuciscus rulilus,li.) Length, 1£ feet; weight from 2
to 3 pounds, and found in the Volga in vast numbers.

28. u Koutoume," "Wyrezoub," {Leuciscus Friesii, Nordm.) Common in
the Sefid-Boud, the Koura, and the Terek; very rare in the Volga, aud
never found in the Ural.

29. " Stchouka," {Esox lucius,) pike. From 30 to 40 pounds ; as much
as 3£ feet in length.

30. "Bescheuka," (Alosa pontica.)

31. "J61eznitsa," {Alosa caspica,) Astrachan herring.

These two last-mentioned species are known by the name of "Astra-
chan herring ; " usually from 2 to 2£ pounds, and sometimes 4. Length,
L} feet. They are very common in the Volga, which they ascend very
far. Some are caught even at Koliazino, in the district of Tver. They
are not found in the Ural, the Terek, the Koura, and the Sefid-Roud.
The Azov Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea contain no species
of Clupea, Val.

32. "Podouste," (Chondrostoma nasus, Val.;) 1J pounds.

33. " Minoga," {Pctromyzon fluviatilis,) Lamprey. Found in large num-
bers in the Koura and the Terek ; common in the Volga below Astra-
chan; and, since 1870, very common near the towns of Yuotayeosk aud
TchornoiYar; and, since 1855, in immense masses in the district of
Saratow.

Of these fish, those which furnish the principal articles of trade are
the Acipeuser, the Silurus, and, of scaly fish, the Lucioperca, the Abramis,

FISHEEIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 61

the Alosa, the Leuciscus rutilus, and the Cyprinus carpio, L. The Core-
gonus Icucichthys and the Salmo salar are less important, and still less the
Esox lucius and other small scaly fish. Pickled lamprey (Petromyzon
fluviaUlis) might form a considerable article of commerce, but, on the
T6rek, it is entirely neglected, and, on the Koura, it is dried and used
as candles.

The first establishment for pickling lampreys was opened in the city
of Tsaritsyn, after the close of the year 1871; and up to February, 1873,
700 casks, containing about 1,200,000 lampreys, had arrived at St. Pe-
tersburg, weighing not less than 56 kilograms (about 123 pounds) to
the thousand, and being exceedingly well pickled ; they are sold from
12 to 14 "roubles" ($8.42 to $9.80 gold) a thousand.

2.— SPAWNING-SEASON OF THE FISH IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

At Astrachan, the Volga is usually free from ice from the beginning
of April, and the different kinds of fish arrive from the Caspian Sea
about that time. The first to arrive is the Scardinius erythroplithalmus,
L.; the "vobla," (Leuciscus rutilus,) chased there during its capricious
leaps from the water by the voracious "belouga"; this is followed by
the Esox lucius, pike; then by the Abramis, and by the Lucioperca,
sandre. From the 20th of April till the 5th of May, the Alosa, or so-
called herrings, appear in immense schools ; then the " sevriouga," (Aci-
penser stellatus,) sturgeon ; the Silurus glanis, Wels; the Cyprinus carpio,
L., carp ; and, finally, tbe Acipenser Guldenstddtii, sturgeon.

Most of the scaly fish spawn in April or in May, and for this purpose
seek the shallow water, where there is but little current, and where aquatic
plants are numerous, and where fishing is strictly prohibited from the 15th
of April till the 15th of May, in order that the spawning-process may not
be interrupted. The salmon and the "cleinaya," (Aspius clupeoides,)
which are caught in large numbers in the Terek and in tbe Koura, usu-
ally spawn in August and September, the first-mentioned on sandy bot-
toms.

The spawning-season of the sturgeon commences in the Volga in June
and lasts till the end of July ; in the Ural, it lasts from the middle of
April till the middle of June. They prefer a hard and stony bottom.
Only three hundred and eighty "versts"(two hundred and nineteen
miles) above Astrachan, near Sarepta, the bottom of the river is of this
character. In order to let the different kinds of sturgeon enjoy the rest
which they require, the fishing-regulations forbid fishing in the Volga,
as well in the river as in its branches, from the 15th of May till the 15th
of July. Nevertheless, fishing is permitted exceptionally, to supply the
local want, from the 15th of June till the 15th of July, between tbe Cas-
pian Sea and the town of Tchornoi-Yar, two hundred and twenty -five
"versts" (one hundred and twenty -nine miles) above Astrachan, with
floating nets 90 " sagenes" (G30 feet) long aud 1 " sagene" (7 feet) deep.

Careful observations have shown that during tbe time immediately

62 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

preceding the spawning-season, the sturgeons eat nothing, while after
spawning they are exceedingly voracious. In the rivers, the young stur-
geon feed on the larvae of insects and small shell-fish, and, in the sea, on
small crabs and shell-fish. The little " belouga " is an exception, feeding
on other fish. The common sturgeon, the " sevriouga," and the " ster-
liad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) also feed on shell-fish. When the sturgeons
are one year old, they leave the rivers and go into the sea, to return as
soon as they are able to spawn.

A very peculiar phenomenon in the Ural is the winter sleep of fish,
especially of the sturgeon. From the end of June, the different kinds
of sturgeon as well as scaly fish come to the Ural for the second time.
For some time they can be seen swimming and playing in the stream,
but as soon as the water grows cold this vivacity disappears ; they seek
the deep places, ("yatoves,'') in which the bed of the river abounds, and
hide there as soon as the surface is frozen. In their state of torpor, these
fish secrete a viscous matter, which formes a thin layer over their whole
body. The fishermen call this the " cloak " of the fish. This torpor, or
sleep, of the fish is caused by severe cold and want of air under the
water, and is therefore a consequence of the excessive weakening of the
respiration. The fish eat nothing during this state, for nothing is found
in their stomach but the viscous matter spoken of above. The great
sturgeon alone (Acipenser huso) seems to take food during his winter-
sleep, for some have been caught having scaly fish in their stomach.

The deep places, or " yatoves," of the Ural are from 7 to 8 " eagenes "
(252 to 278 feet) deep, and the fish there pile themselves upon each other
in thick layers. According to the account of experienced fishermen, stur-
geons there associate only with sturgeons, and scaly fish with their own
kind, never intermingling : the " sinetse " (Abramis ballerus) is the only
scaly fish which has been found among the sturgeons.

Watchmen posted near the " yatoves," every one of which has its own
name, notice exactly in what quantities the fish seek refuge there, and
of which kind the fishing will be most productive. These watchmen
develop a most astonishing sagacity in this respect.

3. — WEALTH OF FISH IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

Pallas, who visited the shores of the Caspian Sea in 1773, speaks of
the immense quantities of fish in this sea. He says, in addition to other
things, that, in the spring in the Koura, near the bar of Salyan, 15,000
sturgeons were frequently caught in one day ; and that when the fishing
was interrupted for one day only, the river, whose depth is 4 " arsheens,"
(80 inches,) was, at every bar, filled with a vast number of fish, piling
themselves one upon the other to such a degree that the topmost had
their backs out of the water. At that time, there was a bar at Gour-
yew, at the mouth of the Ural. It is related that at this place schools
of sturgeon rushed at the bar in countless numbers, and would have
upset it if the Cossacks had not driven them to flight by cannon-shots

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. Go

Similar stories are, it is true, not related in later times, but it is unde-
niable that the result of the fisheries during the years from 1820 to 1830
was perfectly enormous, and that this is not infrequently the case in our
time. Thus, in 182G, during 12 consecutive days, an average of 15,000
sturgeon a day were caught, mostly " sevriougas " and common stur-
geous, (Acipenser Giildenstadtii,) at the fishing establishment ("vataga")
of Provideuce, ("Bojii promysl,") on the Koura, fifteen " versts" (about
eight miles) from the mouth of this river. There were not hands enough
to carry on the work, so that an immense quantity of fish spoiled on the
spot, and 40,000 of them had to be cast into the water. This " vataga"
(fishing-establishment) was visited, in 1853, by the " Imperial commis-
sion for examining the fisheries of the Russian Empire." The commis-
sion was led by M. Baer, from the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St.
Petersburg, the statistical work being confided to M, Dauilevsky, while
I had charge of the technical part.

I observed many a time that ducks and other aquatic birds, which, in
the river Koura, swam on the surface of the water, fell victims to the
voracity of the Siluri. Whenever a bird killed by a shot from a hunts-
man fell into the water, it was immediately seized and devoured by these
enormous fish.

Every day from 3,000 to 5,000 " sevriougas" were brought to the " va-
taga," (fishing-establishment,) where the following quantities were
caught annually : about 15,000 "b61ougas;" 30,000 common sturgeon,
(Acipenser Giildenstadtii ;) 250,000 " sevriougas;" and 230,000 Siluri.

Large numbers of the different species of sturgeon are also caught in
the Ural, the Terek, and the Volga. The wealth of the northern basin
of the Caspian Sea in fish is almost inexhaustible. More than 100,000
nets and at least 15,000,000 of hooks are here employed for sturgeon-
fishing alone, and thousands of fishing-boats are continually engaged in
this occupation. Immense nets are in constant use in the Ural, the
Volga, and in the delta of this latter river; and it is no rare occurrence
that at one single haul 40,000 "lestche" (Abramis brama) are caught, or
150,000 "voblas," (Leuciscus rutilus, L.,) or 200,000 "jelezuitsa," (Alosa
caspica.)

4. — ESTIMATED VALUE OF THE FISHERIES IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The quantity and value of the fish which are caught every year in
the Caspian Sea and its principal tributaries, as well as the number of
seals captured in this sea, can be estimated only approximately. This
estimate amounts annually to the following :

" B61ouga," (Acipenser Huso,) 475,000 "pouds," (17,100,000 pounds;)
value, 1,288,000 « roubles," ($901,600 gold.)

"Osetre" (Acipenser Giildenstadtii) and "Ohyp," (Acipenser Schypa,)
405,000 "pouds," (14,580,000 pounds;) value, 1,G20,000 "roubles,"
($1,134,000 gold.)

64 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"Sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatas,) 65,000 "pouds," (2.340,000 pounds;)
value, 1,962,000 " roubles," ($1,373,400 gold.)

" Sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) 50,750 " pouds," (1,827,000 pouuds ;)
value, 275,000 " roubles," ($192,500 gold.)

" Sazaue," (Cyprinus carpio, L.,) 200,000 "pouds," (7,200,000 pounds;)
value, 120,000 "roubles," ($84,000 gold.)

"Soudah" [Lncioperca sandra) and "Stchouka," (Esox lucius,) 2,650,000
"pouds," (95,400,000 pounds;) value, 2,450,000 "roubles," ($1,715,000
gold.)

" Lestche," (Abramis brama,) 1,375,000 "pouds," (49,500,000 pounds;)
value, 1,275,000 " roubles," ($892,500 gold.)

" Beschenka," (Alosa pontica,) and " jeleznitsa," (Alosa caspica,)
3,000,000 "pouds," (108,000,000 pounds;) value, 1,050,000 "roubles,"
($735,000 gold.)

"Vabla," (Leuciscus rutilus,) 600,000 "pouds," (21,600,000 pounds;)
" okoune," (Pcrcafluviatilis,) 760,000 " pouds," (27,360,000 pouuds ;) value,
500,000 " roubles," ($350,000 gold.)

"Som," (Silurus glanis,) 185,000 " pouds," (6,660,000 pounds;) value,
315,000 " roubles," ($220,500 gold.)

" Lososs," (Salmo salar,) 33,000 "pouds," (1,188,000 pounds;) value,
106,000 " roubles," ($74,200 gold.)

" Belorybitsa," {Goregonas leucichthys,) 32,000 "pouds," (1,152,000
pounds;) value, 103,000 " roubles," ($72,100 gold.)

" Beluga" bladder, 5,500 " pouds," (198,000 pounds ;) value, 600,000
" roubles," ($420,000 gold.)

" Veziga," 4,000 " pouds," (144,000 pounds;) value, 70,000 "roubles,"
($49,000 gold.)

Sturgeon caviar, 139,000 " pouds," (5,004,000 pounds;) value, 1,390,000
" roubles," ($973,000 gold.)

Caviar of Abramis brama and the two kinds of Lucioperca, 300,000
"pouds," (10,000,000 pounds;) value, 300,000 "roubles," ($210,000
gold.)

Fish-oil, 50,000 " pouds," (1,800,000 pounds ;) value, 150,000 " roubles,"
($105,000 gold.)

Seals, 100,000 " pouds," (3,600,000 pounds;) value, 150,000 " roubles,"
($105,000 gold.)

Seal-oil, 100,000 "pouds," (3,600,000 pounds;) value, 350,000 "rou-
bles," ($245,000 gold.)

The grand annual total is therefore 13,000,000 " pouds," (468,000,000
pounds,) representing a value of 15,000,000 "roubles," ($10,500,000
gold.)

5. — FISHING-BASINS OF THE CASPIAN SEA.

The Caspian Sea forms four fishing-basins : 1. The trans-Caucasian ;
2. The territory of the Terek Cossacks and the inhabitants of Mangy-
schlak ; 3. The territory of the Ural Cossacks ; 4. The basin of fisheries
belonging to the state.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. G5

The trans- Caucasian fisheries. — Thisbasin containsfour fisheries; those
of Salyan aud of Kizil-Agatch being the most important. The fishery
of Salyan, to which the " vataga" (fishing-establishment) of Bojii-
Promysl or Providence belongs, extends from the month of the Konra
to the town of Salyan, where the river Akoncha leaves the Konra to
follow itsown course to the sea. At this point the fishery of Kizil-Agatch
is located. The fisheries extend fifty " versts " (about twenty-nine miles)
from the sea-coast. Above Salyan, on the Konra and on the Arape, the
fisheries of Mougaue, Chemakha, Elizabethpol, and Arase are found. The
waters of Bakou extend from the mouth of the Alatchai to Mount Akh
Syvir, comprising a fishing-ground in the sea as far as fifty " versts "
(about twenty-nine miles) from the shore, as well as the seal-hunting
in the islands. The fisheries of Kouba commence at the mouth of the
Samouch and extend to the district of Bakau.

The government always leases. out the trans-Caucasian fishing-basins
for a period of eight years 5 the contracts being made at Tiflis. From
1S1G to 1854, the amount of rent received by the government was only
180,000 " roubles," ($120,000 gold.) It then rose to 320,000 " roubles,"
($221,000 gold;) then to 385,000 " roubles," ($200,500 gold ;) and at the
present time it amounts to 390,000 " roubles," ($273,000 gold.) The per-
son who rents a fishery keeps Tartar and Russian laborers at a fixed
monthly salary, amounting, from 1816 to 1851, to 1£ "roubles," ($3.15
gold.) He also supplies the laborers with food, fishing-implements, and
boats. Besides their fixed monthly pay, 1% "kopecks" (not quite one
cent) is giveu for each sturgeon that is caught.

At the "vataga" (fishing-establishment) of Bojii-Promysl, fifteen
" versts " (eight aud a half miles) from the mouth of the Koura, and iu
the Akoucha, there are bars formed by poles and stakes driven into the
bed of the river, forming a curved liue from one shore to the other. In
every bar, openings are left 3 " sagenes" (21 feet) broad, called " gates," for
letting boats and fish pass. But, contrary to the regulations, these open-
ings are usually closed by means of stationary nets. Fishing is always
very good in all the space between the bar and the sea. People fish
here with hooks, stationary lines, " palangres," and with large and small
nets and seines. The lines, being furnished with pointed hooks, which
are not baited, are either held up by floats or are ballasted and arranged in
rows. The fish coming from the sea are caught on the numberless hooks,
and are taken up by the fishermen, who patrol all the rows of lines reg-
ularly. Besides these implements, stationary and floating nets are also
used. For catching the " som* (Silur us glanis,) the so-called "eissauge"
(very large nets) are employed. The " som " is only fished for in the
spring ; during the other mouths of the year it is entirely neglected, be-
cause a great deal of salt is required to preserve this extraordinarily fat
fish, and much fuel to extract the oil, both of which articles are scarce
and expensive. In the autumn, the "chemaya" (Aspius clwpeoides) is

caught by means of floating nets, the thick part of which is made of
5 F

66

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

silk. Seines are but rarely employed for catching scaly fish, and this
is only doDe in the Upper-Koura.

The person who rents a fishery is bound by his contract to fulfill the
following obligations : Fishing is prohibited from the 1st of June to the
1st of August. During this period, the gates of the bar must remain
open ; and it is forbidden to put any lines or nets there, in order that
the fish may be enabled to come up from the sea and reach their spawn-
ing-places. A fine is imposed for breaking this law, amounting to 1,000
" roubles" ($700 gold) the first time, 2,000 " roubles " ($1,400 gold) the
second time, and, if it occurs a third time, the contract is annulled. If
the lessee erects new bars of his own accord, he is punished by having
his building-material confiscated ; in case of a second offense, he pays a
fine of 2,000 " roubles" ($1,400 gold) the first time, and 4,000 " roubles"
($2,800 gold) the second time. If he receives permission to construct
fishing-parks, bars of stakes, or nets, he must leave two-thirds of the
breadth of the river open if he has any competitors farther up the river;
and, if this is not the case, only one-sixth part. In navigable rivers,
bars of any kind must not occupy more than one-fourth of the breadth
of the river. Moreover, it is forbidden to obstruct rivers, branches of
rivers, mouths of rivers, and lakes with apparatus of this kind.
Finally, to allow the fish to ascend the rivers easily, it is not allowed to
cast a second seine before the first one has been taken on shore.

The lessee procures the necessary salt for preserving fish and for pre-
paring caviar from the government salt-depots. In the district of
Bakou and in the region of the salt-lakes of Salyau, salt costs 12
" kopecks" (about 7 cents) a pound. The lessee cannot get more than
130,000 " pouds," (4,990,000 pounds;) but he has the right to buy salt
at Astrachan or other cities of the empire.

According to the exact statistics of M. Dauilevsky, the trans-Cauca-
sian fisheries yielded during the period from 1848 to 1855 the following:

Number of fi.sh caught.

Co

CO

00

g

CO

CO

s

m

a

3

e

•» -~.

.£•■•£

Co

§1
» ~

Sri

.2 °°

s

- <

a: ^

p4
>-.

s

boVh

r.-i

0"8

a
o

2

fe

.2

*-'§■

a ^

o

ffl

go

o

Sq

QQ

1848

734

52, 126

514, 923

14. 693

127, 663

208, 563

21, 778

46, 653

1849

M):U

27, 723

4:12, 452

14,751

79, 537

300, 094

91, 192

33, 764

1850

12,020

29, 601

558, 502

16, 906

88,444

98, 972

23, 636

69, 830

1851

12, 507

28, 576

464, 923

14, 975

64, 006

161,337

30, 594

31, 378

L852

12. 523

36, 363

556, 563

11, 170

116, 131

206, 755

24, 754

69, 498

1 .-;,;:

9, 527

35, 287

513, 132

13, 695

107, 413

191,501

22,371

41, 574

1854

6, 572

23, 256

436, 495

14,919

59, 499

70, 995

9,531

46, 362

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

G7

Caviar.

"B61ouga" bladder.

"Vezijra."

"Balyk."

©

"Pouds."

Pounds.

"Pouds."

Pounds.

"Pouds."

Pounds.

" Pouds."

Pounds.

1848

26, 522

952, 792

533

19. 183

724

26, 064

278, 786

10, 036, 296

1849

30, 095

1, 083, 420

567

20,412

770

27, 720

312, 036

11,233,2:16

1850

31,909

1, 150,784

657

23, 652

880

31 680

323, 207

11,635,452

I8.")l

28, 4^4

1,025,424

586

21,096

707

27,612

300, 593

10,821, 148

1853

34, 089

1,227,204

690

24, 840

850

30, 600

281, 833

10, 145, 983

1853

31,7^4

1, 144, 224

617

22 212

820

29, 520

264, 659

9, 527, 724

1854

24, 72 L

889, 956

531

19, 116

720

25, 920

304, 342

10, 956, 312

Fisheries in the territory of the Terek Cossack's and of the inhabitants
of Mangyschlak. — This basin comprises two districts, that of Tcbetcheue
and that of Bakhteinir. The former extends eleven " versts " (about
six miles) along the coast; the latter fourteen "versts" (about eight
miles) from the Gulf of Bakhteinir to the possessions of the Scham-
kal of Tarki. In the sea, the extreme limit of the two districts is
seventy-six " versts " (about forty-four miles) from the coast.

The right to fish in these waters belongs both to the Cossacks of the
Terek, and to those fishermen who, by paying a certain sum of money,
receive a permit from the military authorities.

The fishing-basin of the inhabitants of the Peninsula of Mangy-
schlak in the northeastern portion of the Caspian Sea extends from
Cape Tiouk Karagane twenty-five " versts" (fourteen miles) toward
the north, and the same distance toward the west. It has an area of
six hundred and twenty-five square "versts," (about two hundred and
seventy- three square miles.) Only the inhabitants have the right to
fish here.

Fisheries in the territory of the Ural Cossacks. — This exceedingly
rich basin comprises (a) the river Ural, to a length of six hundred
" versts" (about three hundred and forty-five miles) from its mouth to
one hundred "versts" (about fifty-seven and one-half miles) above the
city of Uralsk ; (b) part of the Caspian Sea from the mouth of the Ural
extending eighty-eight " versts" (about fifty and a half miles) to the
west, and seventy-eight " versts" (about forty-five miles) to the east,
and having a depth of 7 " sageues," (lb' feet 4 inches;) (e) all the rivers
and lakes in the interior of the territory ; (d) a great lake, called
Tcherkalskoe Mortso in the Kirghize steppe, which is connected with
the sea.

All these waters are the undisputed property of the army of Ural
Cossacks. The fishing-regulations are very old, and have, till the
present time, been kept up by tradition and custom. The military
authorities see to it that these regulations are strictly enforced. For
every kind of fishing-industry, the military authorities publish regula-
tions, stipulating the time of opening and closing the fisheries, the
different formalities, conditions, &o.

As soon as the Ural is free from iee, the spring-fisheries commence.
In the river, " sevriougas " (Acipenser stellatus) are caught with floating

68 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP FISH AND FISHERIES.

nets; sturgeon are caught in tbe sea; and scaly fish in the Tcherkalskoe
Mortso. Fishing in the river is prohibited from the middle of Juue till
the middle of August. The sturgeon appear in great numbers in the
Ural in the month of July to seek refuge in the " yatoves," (deep places,)
to which they, however, do not retire till October. The autumn-fish-
eries commence about the middle of August, first with stationary nets,
then with floating nets and seines, and last till November. As soon as
the Ural is frozen, they begin to catch the sturgeon under the ice by
means of hooks and fish-gigs, (" bagrenie ;") and scaly fish with seines in
the river, and with stationary nets in the sea. Hook-fishing lasts till
the middle of January, while nets are used till the first of March.

In order to allow the fish to enter freely into the Ural, fishing in the
sea just at the mouths of the river is prohibited over an area eighty
" versts" (about forty-sis miles) long, and forty " versts" (about twenty,
three miles) broad. Outside of this area it is allowed to place " pa-
langres " perpendicularly on the shore for catching sturgeou. The num-
ber of " palangres" is fixed beforehand, and the most favorable locations
are distributed by casting the lot.

In autumn, they fish in the lower part of the Ural over an extent of
two hundred and eighty " versts," (about one hundred and sixty-one
miles;) and 8,000 Cossacks, with 3,000 boats, are engaged in this occu-
pation. The whole stretch is marked off into fifteen divisions. There
is always one seine, with wings, to every two boats. The boats at first
go slowly down the river iu regular order, then, as they approach the
"yatoves," (deep places,) wliere the fish congregate, all the boats use the
oars to their utmost capacity, in order to arrive first.

After the "yatoves" of one division have been exhausted, they pass
to another division, and so on in order. While the Cossacks go down
the river in their boats, the merchants follow them along the shore,
accompanied by wagons, on which the fish, which have been bought by
them, are placed. Salting is carried on on the spot, as well as the man-
ufacture of fish-glue (isinglass) and of caviar.

From the city of Uralsk to the Cossack village of Antonov, people
fish in the Ural under the ice with hooks and fish-gigs. This fishery is
also carried on by divisions appointed for every fishing-day. The hook,
called " bagor," is a fish-gig with a pointed steel hook attached to a
wooden handle. Fishing with hooks is the favorite occupation of the
Cossacks. Even the poorest among them can take a part iu it; for the
whole outlay consists of a hook, a sleigh drawn by a horse, and the
necessary food and fodder for one day. At this season of the year, the
price of fish is high, so that fishing becomes a very profitable occupa-
tion. Chance, however, has a good deal to do with success in this mode
of fishing.

The fishermen form associations (" artelles ") of from six to fifteen
members, and divide the fish among them.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. GO

The value of these fisheries (by hook and by net) may be estimated
with certainty at 400,000 " roubles" ($280,000 gold) per annum.

The annual revenue of the fisheries of the army of Cossacks of the Ural
is 1,200,000 "roubles," ($840,000 gold.)

Fisheries of the government — The following localities belong to the vast
basin of government-fisheries: (a) the Volga, with its tributaries from the
city of Kamychine, in the district of Saratow, to the sea, which includes
an area of 15,900 square " versts," (about 7,000 square miles,) with 135
fishing-establishments, (" vatagas ";) (b) those portions of the sea in
which fishing is free, according to the imperial decree of May 25, 1865.
This part of the sea is divided into seven fisheries : 1. The southwest
fishery, from the northern frontier of the territory of the Terek Cossacks
to a point on the coast five " versts " (almost three miles) from the mouth
of the Talovka, with an areaof l,501f square " versts," (about G57 square
miles ;) 2. That of the buoys of the Terek, from the boundary of the pre-
ceding division to five " versts" (almost three miles) beyond the mouth
of the Prorva, with 1,252£ square " versts," (549 square miles;) 3. That
of the west from the boundary of the preceding division to the Island of
the Four Hills, with 4,206^ square "versts," (1,844 square miles;) 4.
That of the buoys of the Volga in front of the mouths of the river from
the Island of the Four Hills to the eastern extremity of the great gulf
of Siuoye Mortso, with 3,G55f square " versts," (1,720 square miles ;) 5.
That of the northeast from this gulf to the western limit of the waters of
the Ural, with 11,054 square " versts," (4,047 square miles;) 0. That of
the Emba, from the eastern limit of the waters of the Ural to the fish-
ing-basin of the inhabitants of Mangyschlak, with a surface of 60,596
square " versts," (22,667 square miles;) 7. The division of the high sea
and the waters that wash the eastern coast of the sea to the river A trek,
which forms the boundary-line of Persia; the extent of this division
has not been exactly measured.

All these divisions, not including the seventh, have an area of 82,267
square " versts," (32,286 square miles.) If one adds 15,914 square "versts"
(3,398 square miles) of river-fisheries, the fourth fishing-basin comprises
an area of 98,181 square "versts," (35,6S4 square miles.) It includes, at
least in part, the districts of Saratow, of Astrachau, of Orenburg, of
Stavropol, and of Daghestan. The administrative authorities have
their seat at Astrachau. They were constituted by an imperial decree
of the 25 tii of May, 1865, and are called "Administration of the fisheries
and of the seal hunt." This administration belongs to the ministry
of domains, and it has officers appointed to secure the strict observance
of the fishing-regulations. It also makes out the contracts and receives
the payments for fishing-permits.

ISTot only are the river-fisheries of private individuals subject to the
regulations, but also the fisheries of the cities, convents, and villages,
as also those of the Astrachau Cossacks.

The river-fisheries of the Terek are leased out by the chamber of do-

70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

mains at Stavropol for the annual sum of 28,000 "roubles," ($19,600
gold.) The leases of the other fisheries yield the following sums : those of
Prince Dolgorouki, 7,000 " roubles," ($4,900 gold ;) of Count Kouchelew-
Bezborodko, 22,G26 "roubles," ($15,838.20 gold;) of the Astrachan Cos-
sacks, 29,574 "roubles," ($20,701.80 gold;) of the convent of Tchourki,
7,500 "roubles," ($5,250 gold ;) of the city of Astrachau, 1,803 "roubles,"
($1,301.10 gold.)

The government possesses in the Volga and its several branches, as
well as in the innumerable lagoons and small brooks, ("yiryks,") sixty-
three fisheries, which are leased separately. The lease is for seven
years; the price of the lease amounting to 218,S39 "roubles," 32 "ko-
pecks," ($174,187.51 gold.)

The administration of the fisheries issues special permits for fishing
in the sea. The price of these permits varies, and depends as much on
the season of the year as on the locality where people desire to fish.
Every boat must have its permit. In the spring, the permit costs 20
"roubles" ($14 gold) for fishing with stationary nets; in the autumn, 30
" roubles," ($21 gold;) and for the whole year, 50 " roubles," ($35 gold.)
For fishing with seines, a permit is required for each seine, which costs
100 "roubles" ($70 gold) a year, and 50 " roubles" ($35 gold) for half a
year. The seal-hunters pay for an annual permit G "roubles," ($4.20
gold,) and for a half-yearly permit 3 "roubles," ($2.10 gold.) A permit
for fishing in winter costs 25 "roubles," ($17.50 gold;) but those who
have already a permit for the whole year, or two permits for six months
each, receive the winter-permit gratis.

There are in these waters every year about 14,000 fishermen, with
3,000 large sail-boats.

Immediately in front of the mouths of the Volga, the limit of fishing
is indicated by twenty-two lines of buoys. These lines are formed by
beacons, or buoys, placed from 120 to 150 " sa genes " (840 to 1,050 feet)
apart, in the direction of 32 degrees southeast, and extend iuto the sea
fifty " versts," (twenty-eight miles,) with a depth of 3 " sagenes," (21
feet.) These lines are distant from two to six " versts" (about one and
one-fourth miles to three and one-third miles) from each other. The
two lines of buoys established before the mouth of the Terek follow
the direction of 45 degrees northeast, and go out into the sea sixty
" versts," (thirty-four and one-half miles,) with a depth of 4 " sagenes,"
(28 feet.) "Corridors," as they are called, from five to ten "versts"
wide, (about three to six and one-third miles,) form openings before the
mouths of the rivers to let those fish pass which are leaving the sea to
ascend the rivers. Fishing in these " corridors " is prohibited. In the
space between the lines, the fishermen can follow their vocation till the
sea reaches the depth of 1 " sagene," (7 feet,) which is the case at about
twelve " versts" (almost seven miles) out at sea, but only with " palan-
gres;" while farther out at sea, at a depth of 3 " sagenes," (21 feet,)
they can use " palangres " and stationary nets. In the first case, the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

71

permit costs 30 " roubles " ($21 gold) in the spring ; 20 " roubles " ($14
gold) in the autumn ; and 50 " roubles" ($35 gold) for the whole year;
in the second case, 70, 50, and 100 "roubles," ($19, $35, and $70 gold.)
The fishing implements must be placed parallel with the lines of buoys.
The rows of "palangres" are 22£ " sagenes" (117 J feet) apart, while the
space between the rows of boats must be 135 " sagenes," (915 feet.) On
an average, there are 5,100 fishermen, with 1,700 boats, employed
annually in the fisheries among the buoys of the Volga.

Table of income from the government fisheries during the years 1867-1872.

Income from the sale of

Income from the
leases of river-
fisheries.

permits.

Taxes on seal-oil
and seal-skins
transported to
Astrachan.

Total.

Fisheries.

Seal-hunt-
ing.

Years.

50
IS

3

3
O

P5

o5

M
o

a>
a

o

M

American
gold, dol-
lars.

o5

3

American
gold, dol-
lars.

3

American
gold, dol-
lars.

en

3

50

_£
O

s

0"

American
gold, dol-
lars.

o5

O

3

5

_£

a,'
P.
o

P.-1
o —
*£ — r .

E - 00

£ c is

1867 . .

1868 ..

210, 801
229, 139

47
13

147, 603 03
160,397 39

209, 035
176, 350

146, 324 50
123, 445 00

1,479

1,068

1,035 30
747 60

40, 302
43, 795

58
46

28,211 80*
30, 656 82"

461, 577
450, 352

05

59

323, 103 93*
315.246 82"

1869 ..

229, 86H

13 160, 907 69

163, 930

141, 751 00

963

674 10 34,549

01

24, 184 30

429,310; 14

31.0,517 104,

1870 . .

229, 868

13^ 160, 907 69

183, 635

128, 544 50

1,131

791 70 33, 552

62

23, 486 82 448, 186 1 75

313,730 71

1871 ..

248, 839

32 174, 187 52*183, 700

128, 590 00

999

699 30'24, 888

12

17,421 67 444, 983i 32

311,488 31

1872 . .

248, 839

32 174,187 524204,454

143, 117 80

663

464 10 43, 371

19

30, 359 84

497,327 51

348, 129 25

The taxes on seal oil are paid by persons who buy the seals from
the huntsmen as soon as these have returned from the sea to the
mouths of the Volga. The taxes are paid as soon as the huntsman has
sold his seals, or at the time when the buyer, after having notified the
fishing-administration, gets ready to ship the casks of seal-oil. The
tax is 30 " kopecks " (21 cents) for each " poud " (36 pounds) of seal-fat
or seal-skins ; and 40 "kopecks" (28 cents) for each "poud" (30 pounds)
of oil.

Table showing quantities of oil and slcins registered at the offices of the administration of

fisheries.

Years.

1867

1608
1869

1870
1871
1672

Oil.

Russian weight.

93, 395 " pouds " 15 pounds
104, 161 " ponds " 5 pounds
81, 979 " pouds " 30 pounds
76, 790 " pouds "15 pounds
59, 154 " pouds " 25 pounds
102,874 "pouds"

American
weight.

Pounds.
3, 362, 235
3, 749, 801
2, 951, 274

2, 836, 455
2, 129, 569

3, 703, 464

Skins.

Xumher.

131, 723
150, 947
128, 701
137, 030
90, 468
156, 759

Russian
weight.

American
weight.

'Pouds."
12, 667
14. 7rli
11,915

12, 674
8,454

13, 092

Pounds.
450, 012
532, 2110
428, 940
440, 204
304, 344
492, 912

Whoever introduces dead seals as contraband articles, or clandes-
tinely sells or buys them, pays a fine triple the amount of the tax on
seal-oil.

The fishing-regulations also imxiose fines for illicit fishing in the sea.

72 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Thus, for the use of floating nets there is a fine of 20 " roubles," ($14 gold,)
and the fishing-implements and the fish caught are confiscated. Any
person fishing in the " corridors," where fishing is prohibited, pays
double the amount of an annual permit, either 100 or 210 "roubles,
($70 or $L08 gold.) A person who is fined for the third time has not
only to pay the fine, but is deprived for ten years of the right of fishing
within the limits of the buoys. Persons using forged permits are
arraigned before the criminal court. When a permit has run out, it
must be delivered at the offices of the fishing-administration, and, if
this is neglected, a fine of 5 " kopecks" (3-J cents) must be paid for each
day of delay, till the maximum of 3 "roubles" ($2.10 gold) is reached.

The river-fisheries of the government are subdivided into a certain
number of small fisheries, which are leased. This, as well as the liberty
of fishing in the sea, the system of buoys, and the fixing of certain
periods when fishing is prohibited, has fully proved its beneficial influ-
ence and great usefulness. Formerly, there were at Astrachan only
seven houses which dealt in fish and fishing-products ; at present, there
are in that city about thirty large and small fishing-houses, which com-
pete with each other, not only in the preparation of fish and the different
articles prepared from them, but also in the sums they pay to their em-
ployes and laborers. Poor fishermen — and their number is very great —
who have commenced with but little, have been favored by fortune, and
many of them have become the independent proprietors of large fishing-
boats, on which numerous laborers earn a safe and good living. The
prices paid by the fishing-houses are just double that which they were
formerly. The system of buoys facilitates the passage of fish into the
innumerable currents which form the mouths of the Volga, so that they
cannot only reach the spawning-places, but ascend as high as the fisheries
located beyond Kamychiue in eight districts of the Volga basin. Special
officers watch zealously over the strict observance of the new fishiug-
regulations, and the important process of spawning cau now go on with-
out the slightest risk of being disturbed.

An improvement, which is very desirable, and which has not yet
been carried out, is the total abolition, or at least a great diminution,
of the tax on salt. If this were done, the fish would be better salted,
and certain kinds, which now, on account of the high price of salt, are
not salted at all, would become an eagerly sought-for article of com-
merce. The Astrachan fisheries use at present not less than 2,500,000
" pouds " (90,000,000 pounds) yearly. The duty on salt is 30 " kopecks "
(21 cents) on the " pond," (36 pounds.)

6. — FISHING-IMPLEMENTS.

The implements used by the fishermen of the Caspian Sea are various
kinds of nets, "paleugres," hooks, and fish-gigs, which generally resem-
ble those used in the Mediterranean, and are of ancient origin.

Stationary nets. — The nets that are in use are stationary nets float-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 73

ing nets, seines, and cast-nets, (" eperviers.") Tbe fishermen and pro-
prietors of fisheries buy the material for tbe nets, viz, twine, thread,
small cords, cords, &c, from the Astraehan merchants, who get them
from Nijui-Novgorod, Kazan, and Saratow. They use for sturgeon-fish-
ing in the sea nets which are 12 " sagenes " (84 feet) long and 4 " ar-
sheens"(9 feet 4 inches) deep, made of five-ply or six ply thread, with
meshes oh to 4 inches square, and furnished with floats and leads.
These nets are laid as deep as 4 " sagenes," (28 feet.) Generally, from
20 to 40 are joined, and sometimes even as many as 80 or 100, so as to
form a straight line extending several " versts." The whole line of nets
is held up by bolt-ropes on a row of stakes, which are driven into the
bottom of the sea. Fishing with stationary nets coutinues from April
till the end of May, and from August till the beginning of October.
During the second part of the autumn and in the winter, they are but
rarely used.

For catching the great sturgeon, ("belouga,") especially in the winter,
large nets 12 " sagenes " (84 feet) long and G " arsheens " (14 feet) deep,
are used, with meshes 8 inches square.

In the lagoons, and in the narrow channels ("yeryke") connecting
them, as well as in the mouths of rivers, stationary nets are also set for
catching sturgeon and different kinds of scaly fish. According to the
regulations, these nets must be set in such a manner as to leave one-
third of the river unobstructed. The nets for catching scaly fish are
made of 3 and 4 ply threads; are likewise 12 "sagenes" (84 feet) long,
but not more than 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) broad. The meshes
are of different sizes. For Lucioperca sandra and Lucioperca volgensis
and Abramis brama, they measure 2.} inches; for other small scaly fish,
1£ inches ; and for Coregonus leucichthys, 4 inches. In places that are not
very deep, these nets are attached to poles, while in deep places they
rest on stationary stakes.

Among the stationary nets must also be classed the sweep-nets made
of from four to seven osier hoops of different diameter, covered with a
net forming a sort of hood over them. The circle which forms the en-
trance, and to which the hood and the wings are attached, has a diam-
eter of from % to 1£ " sagenes," (5 feet 3 inches to 10 feet G inches.) The
other circles, whose diameterdimiuishes gradually, are! to 1.1 "arsheeus"
(1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet G inches) apart. The net extends li "arsheens"
(1 foot 8 inches) beyond the smallest circle forming the last bag; or,
ending in a leap between the first and third circle, there is another net
inside, in the shape of a funnel or truncated cone, called " straight en-
trance," (" goulet " in French,) whose inner opening, 4 inches broad,
allows the fish to pass into the leap or bag. This entrance is kept open
by means of cords. Each wing of the sweep-net is from li to 3 " sa-
genes*' (10 feet G inches to 21 feet) long, and the meshes are from l£to
2 inches square. The nets, which are fixed to poles, are placed in such
a manner that the opening, like an enormous mouth, faces the fish,

74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

which are going up the river. Several sweep-nets are usually placed
side by side in such a manner that their wings form sharp angles. It
is strictly forbidden to obstruct the whole breadth of the river, or the
whole extent of a fishing-ground with a row of sweep-nets.

These nets are generally used in the winter ; while, in the summer,
small sweep-nets with one wing are used, chiefly for catching " som,"
(Hilurus giants.)

Floating nets. — The use of floating nets in the sea is strictly pro-
hibited, because during the summer- months immense schools of stur-
geon leave the sea to spawn in the rivers. It has sometimes happened
that sturgeon have been caught in this manner, aud for want of la-
borers and salt have been thrown into the sea after their roe aud their
swimming-bladder had been taken out. Whenever the officers of the
fisheries find a fisherman with floating nets in the sea, they confiscate
his nets and the fish he has caught, and make him pay a fine of 25
" roubles," ($17.50 gold.)

The floating nets are from 12 to 15 " sagenes" long, (84 to 105 feet,)
with meshes 4 inches square, of which 28 or 32 go to one net. The
floats consist of wooden blocks one "arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long,
cut iu the shape of a spatula, and attached to cords, which are tied to
the upper bolt-rope of the net, so that they can be lengthened or short-
ened at will, according as the school of fish keeps at a certain depth or
near the surface. These nets have no lower bolt-rope and no leads.
Two nets are generally tied together longitudinally, in order to double
the total depth of the leap to 5Q or 64 meshes. Every boat carries from
30 to 80 nets, which, bound together end to end, and thrown into the
sea, form a wall of meshes several "versts" in length; and this, at-
tached to one of the boards of the boats, is dragged along with the
boat, while the latter is driveu by the wind, till it extends facing the
school of the advancing fish. Frequently, two boats keep the nets
extended between them, and move with full sail to meet the school
of fish.

In the Volga and its various branches, as also in the Ural, floating
nets are used only for catching the several kinds of sturgeon. In the
Terek, the " chemaya" (Aspius clupeoides, Pall.) is caught with simple
floating nets, aud in the Koura with silk nets. Floating nets in the
shape of a bag are used in the Koura and the Volga for catching the
"som," (Silurus giants.)

The floating nets in the Volga have different names. For catching
the " belouga," (Acipenser huso,) they use the "pogona'ie" nets that are
150 "sagenes" (1,050 feet) long and from 7 to 11 "sagenes" (49 to 77
feet) broad, having meshes inches square. For catch ug the sturgeon
and the " sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus,) they use, immediately after the
ice has broken up, the " samoplavy ;" and from the end of May to the
middle of June, the " svintchatki ; " then, immediately after the rising of
bhe sea, which occurs iu July, the "rejaki." The first-mentioned nets

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 75

are 90 "sagenes" (030 feet) long and 33 meshes broad, each of which is
4£ inches square. They have no lower bolt-rope. The " svintchatky "
are from CO to 130 " sagenes" (420 to 910 feet) long, and have two leaps,
one of which, the outer, is woven with large meshes of G inches, and the
other, or inner, with meshes of an inch and a half. One of the ends of
the net has a float of reeds or of wood attached to the net by means of
a cord 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) long, while the other end is at-
tached to the boat. The fisherman who is in the boat allows himself to
be driven by the current, and is careful to see that the net and the float
always follow in a straight line, and at an equal distance. The fish,
which throw themselves on the net, go through the great meshes of the
outer leap, and then find themselves caught in the inner one. The
" rejaki" are 90 " sagenes" (030 feet) long, 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches)
broad, and have meshes 3 J inches square, and a lower leaded bolt-rope.

In the Volga and its several branches, fishing is prohibited from May
15 to July 15, except with " palaugres," and a seine of 50 " sagenes,"
(350 feet,) which the fishermen drag to and fro, running about on foot
in the bed of the river in places which are not very deep, thus catching
small, scaly fish. The fishermen are, moreover, authorized to catch
sturgeon for their own use, between the city of Tcharnoi-Yar and the
sea, by means of floating-nets 90 "sagenes" (G30 feet) long and 1
"sageue" (7 feet) broad. This fishing is permitted from June 15 to
July 15.

The floating nets used in the Koura for catching the "chemaya"
(Asjjius clupeo'ides) have meshes lh inches square and are 12 "sageues"
(84 feet) long. Instead of floaters, the fishermen use hollow pumpkins.
The bag nets for catching the "som" (Silurus glanis) have meshes 2|
inches square. The bag itself is 12 "sageues" (84 feet) long and 5
" arsheens" (11 feet 8 inches) broad. In the Volga, these nets are used
for fishing only in the spring and fall, and in the Koura, in January and
February.

Seines with bags. — In the Volga and its tributaries, large seines
("eissaugues") are used, measuring from 300 to 400 "sagenes," (2,100 to
2,800 feet,) whose bag is from G to 12 "sagenes" (42 to 84 feet) long,
with meshes one inch square. The meshes of that part of the wings
which is nearest to the bag have the same dimensions, while those
farther removed from it are from 1% to 2J inches in size. The wings
are not of the same length. That which is cast first, the "coast-wing,"
as it is called, measures only 50 " sagenes," (350 feet,) while the other,
which is cast so as to form a crescent, measures from 250 to 350 " sagenes,"
(1,750 to 2,450 feet.) The seines are used for catching Lueioperca sand ra
and Lucio±)erca volgensis and Abramis brama. It is no rare occurrence
to take 30,000 to 40,000 fish at a single haul. From the middle of May
till the beginning of July, seines are not used, because the banks of the
river are overflowed and the current is exceedingly strong.

Two boats are absolutely required for this fishing; one of them, the

7G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"nevodnik," does nothing else but cast and haul in the nets; while the
other, the "rybnitsa," takes the fish which have been caught to the
fishing-establishment, ("vataga.") The "nevodnik" is manned by 8 or
12 fishermen, with a pilot, who directs the fishing, and has the general
superintendence of the whole. On board the " rybnitsa,' 1 which has two
masts and is 30 feet long, there are 7 men, one of them being a pilot.
It can carry 1,000 "pouds" (30,000 pounds) of fish. A "rybnitsa"
costs- from 150 to 250 "roubles," ($105 to $175,) and a "nevodnik," from
100 to 200 "roubles," ($70 to $140.)

The places in the river where seine-fishing is to be carried on must
have a uniform and even bottom, so that the nets can be dragged with
an even movement, and may not be exposed to the danger of tearing.

According to the regulations, there can be only two seines in one and
the same place, while the number of fishermen is also limited; for there
must not be more than one fisherman to every 20 " sagenes " (110 feet) of
net. The fishing- places must moreover be one " verst " (3,500 feet) apart.
For catching the " Astrachau herring," (Alosa pontica and Alosa caspica,)
the number of nets is not limited; but, according to the regulations, the
meshes of the bag of the net must measure three-eighths of a " verschok,"
(little more than half an inch,) and those of the wing 1^ square inches.
From the 15th of April till the 15th of May, these schools of herring are
so numerous that the fishermen attach a second bag to the first, then
again a third one to that, and do not draw the net on shore, but take the
fish out with a hand-net and throw them into the " rybnitsa."

In tne sea, at a depth of from 5 to 7 feet, and especially in the spring and
autumn, seines are used measuring from 300 to 400 "sagenes, (2,100 to
2,800 feet,) and the fish caught are chiefly Lucioperca sandra, Lucioperca
volgensis, and Abramis brama, which at this time arrive in vast schools.
The wings of the seine are of equal lengths. As soon as the approach
of a school of fish is announced, the " rybnitsa" casts anchor, while the
" nevodnik " uses all its oars or sails going toward the school and grad-
ually casting the nets. On board the " nevodnik," there are a pilot, six
rowers, and two laborers. When the net has been cast, the " nevodnik"
joins the " rybnitsa," to which one of the ends of the seine is attached,
aud, all hands assisting, they begin to draw the net into the " nevodnik."
This last-mentioned boat is placed at a distance of one " arshecn " (2 feet
4 inches) from the " rybnitsa," to which it is joined by strong transverse
sticks. The net is drawn back underneath the hull of the " rybnitsa."
This must be done in an even manner, without any sudden jerks. In
order to deprive the fish of every means of escape, the net is drawn in
such a manner that the lower bolt-rope of the two wings slightly grazes
the outside of the boat. For this purpose an iron implement is used,
shaped like a heart, to the pointed end of which a loug cord is attached.
People fish only by daytime, and during the night the boats are drawn
on shore. It is very interesting to see the fishermen go out into the sea
to search for a school of fish. The experienced pilot who leads the ex-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 77

pedition stands at the prow of the boat, constantly sounding the water
with a long pole, to ascertain the presence of a school, or to see whether
one is approaching. He also gives the sign ,as soon as he thinks the
moment has coaie for casting the nets. Generally, the whole school is
caught.

Gast net.) — These nets are chiefly used on the southwestern coast
of the Caspian Sea, at Lencoran, and in the bay of Enseli. They
are made of silk, and small scaly fish, and even roe, are caught with
them. The cast net is a round, conical net. If taken up in the middle,
it assumes the shape of a funnel, the lower opening having a diameter
of 5^ " arsheens," (12 feet 10 inches;) while in the middle of the net,
which forms the apex of the cone, there is a thin cord 8 "sagenes" (50
feet) long. A slack silk rope is attached to this, ending in a noose,
through which the hand can be easily passed. The opening is edged
with a strong bolt-rope of the thickness of a finder, which is ballasted
by small leaden tubes C inches long and 3 inches apart. In the spaces
between the leads, cords 10 inches long are attached, with one end to
the bolt-rope and the other to one of the meshes of the net above the
bolt-rope. Thereby, the lower portion of the net hangs in the shape of a
bag below each one of these cords, and the leads gradually approach
each other. This is the old cast-net with blouses, or pockets.

When the net is cast, it spreads at first like a disk at the bottom
of the water; then, as soon as the cord is drawn, the vertical cords are
brought nearer together, and close the opening like a purse. The net
thus forms folds, and the fish, which are underneath, get entangled in
the meshes. It requires a certain degree of skill to cast the net. It is
done in the following mauner: The fisherman puts his left wrist in the
noose, holds a portion of the net gathered in his left hand, and with his
teeth tykes hold of the cord with the leads. At the same time he gath-
ers on his right arm about one-third of the extent of the net forming its
opening, in such a manner as to let the end hang below the arm, while
the remainder hangs down in front of his body. In this position, he
seizes with his right hand the cord with the leads, describes a semicircle
toward the left to give force to his throw, then turns quickly to the right,
and, slackening the cord which he holds between his teeth, casts the net
into the water with all his strength. The cord, weighted down by the
leads, immediately siuks to the bottom, and the net, completely extended,
catches the fish which are below. In order to draw it back, the fish-
erman lifts the net gradually by means of the cord, whose end he has
not slackened, turniug alternately to the right and to the left in order
to bring the leads together more easily, and winds up by drawing in the
whole net as rapidly as possible.

In order to attract the fish, small glittering stones, or little clay -balls,
baited with worms, are thrown into the water. Fishing with the cast-net
is only carried on during the night, and an even bottom, without stones
or trunks of trees, is absolutely required.

78 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

" Palangres," cable-lines, (cablieres,) and bottom-lines. — The cords,
thread, and twine required for manufacturing the "palaugres " are made
in the villages and in sqnie cities of the districts of Nijui-Novgorod and
Saratow, whence they are sent to Astrachan. The hooks are made of
wire and are barbed. These hooks are only used for the different species
of sturgeon. A thousand of these hooks for fishing in the sea cost, if
they weigh 3 " pouds," (108 pounds,) 17 " roubles," ($11.90 gold;") those
weighing 2J "pouds" (90 pounds) to the thousand, cost 12 "roubles,"
($8.40 gold;) while the third kind, weighing l.J "pouds" (54 pounds) to
the thousand, generally cost only 7 "roubles," ($4.90 gold.) In the riv-
ers, hooks are used weighing lh " pouds," (54 pounds,) 1 "pond" 10
pounds, (46 pounds.) or 1 "poud,"(36 pounds,) to the thousand; costing,
respectively, 5 "roubles" 15 "kopecks," ($3.60£ gold;) 4 "roubles" GO
" kopecks," ($3.22 gold ;) and 4 " roubles" 40 " kopecks," ($3.08 gold.)

A " bottom-line" is Jf cord of the thickness of a finger and 20 " sagenes"
(140 feet) long, to which pieces of whip-cord are attached about as thick
as a quill, 12 inches apart, and furnished with hooks. The floats are of
wood, 5 inches long and 2 inches broad. They are attached to the line,
the distance between them being equal to that from the end to the fifth
or sixth piece of whip-cord, making from twelve to fifteen floats to a
line of 10 " sagenes," (70 feet.) From ten to fifteen of these lines are
usually tied together and placed at a depth of 3 "sagenes" (21 feet) or
more. They are kept in position by means of cords attached to station-
ary poles. In very deep places, anchors are substituted for the poles.
In the summer, they are only left in the water one week, while in the
other seasons they remain there two weeks. They are examined every
day, and the sturgeons that have been caught on the hooks are taken
off. They are placed in the sea in a straight line, and extend several
" versts." The sturgeons approach " these palangres," and, anxious
to pass through the free spaces between the pieces of whip-cord, are
caught by the hooks, and the more efforts they make to disengage
themselves the more do they bring the water in motion, and a larger
number of hooks enter their body.

The "bottom-line" used in the Volga for catching the "sterliad"
(Aeipenser ruthenus) has usually 200 hooks, attached to pieces of whip-
cord 11 inches long, and 15 inches apart, on the main line, which is GO
"sagenes" (420 feet) long. The hooks are made of wire, and a thou-
sand of them weigh only 5h pounds.

The "belouga" (Aeipenser huso) is caught in the sea with " palengres"
at a depth of from 70 to 100 " sagenes," (490 to 700 feet,) the line having a
diameter of half an inch and a length of 70 " sagenes." The hooks are at-
tached to piecesof whip-cord, 1J "sagenes " (10.V feet) long, and are much
larger, stronger, and thicker than those used for catching the common
sturgeon. A thousand of them weigh 3 " pouds, " (108 pounds.) These
hooks are baited with small, living, scaly fish, kuown by the name of " ta-
ranes," (a local name for bait fishes of several kinds of Alosa, Abramis,

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 79

Leuciscus, and Cyprinns,) which are caughtin the Volga immediately after
the ice breaks up. Iu order to keep these small fish alive, the fishing-boat,
which has sails, and is called "kouzovaya lodka," coutaius a large per-
forated box, which, by means of pumps, is constantly kept supplied with
fresh water. When the fishermen have exhausted their stock of bait,
they return to Astrachan. While the fishing is going on, the livers and
the caviar of the " belouga" are being prepared ou board the boat.

Spinning-lines and other implements with hooks. — The " belouga "
(Acipenser huso) is caught under the ice in the sea by means of large
perforated hooks of forged iron, baited with seal-fat. The hook is
attached to a thick cord 30 " sagenes" (210 feet) long, only half of which
is placed in the water, while the other half is rolled up at the edge of
a hole which has been made in the ice. The other end of the line is at-
tached to a strong piece of wood placed across the hole, and the middle
of this line is tied to it with a thin thread, which tears as soon as a
sturgeon has bitten, so that the remaining portion of the line unrolls
and glides under the ice.

For catching the Silurus giants in June aud July, hooks are likewise
used, baited with living frogs. The following is the method : The fish-
ing boat is manned by two men. One rows and the other throws the
line, which is attached to a rectangular wooden lever ; at the same time
he beats the water with a sort of shovel formed by a small piece of
plank, which is slightly concave, aud which is attached to a handle.
This plank produces a peculiar noise, which attracts the Silurus, and,
seeing the frog, it seizes it, and finds itself caught.

The Coregonus leucichthys is caught by means of the " blesna," which
consists of perforated hooks with a long shaft bearing a little tin fish,
or a fiat piece of tin shaped like a fish. Scales of the Cyprinus carpio,
whose sparkling attracts the fish, are pasted on the flat part of the
hook.

The Ural Cossacks use large steel hooks, sharply pointed aud barbed,
for catching the sturgeon under the ice. The line is attached to the thin
end of a rod, whose length is in proportion to the depth of the river.
Frequently, several poles are tied together; in order that the hook may
descend vertically into the water, and may not be carried away by the
current, leads are attached to the rod a little below the hook. Small
poles are held in the hand, but generally they are evenly balanced on
a tripod of wooden blocks or poles, at a convenient distance from the
hole in the ice. Near this hole, an arch of osiers is stuck in the ice, to
which the automatic apparatus is attached, by which, through a wooden
pin, the line is kept in the position which is required for this kind of
fishing — the thin end of the pole near the arch on the ice — and the hook
at the desired depth. Whenever a fish seizes the hook, the pin is pulled
out, the rod again becomes straight through the weight of its heavy part,
and so pulls the fish out. Camps, " sidebki," of from 100 to 1,000 of these
automatic arrangements may be seen every year on the ice of the Volga,

80 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The authorities of the Cossack army fix the time for opening the fish-
ing-season. On the appointed day, Cossacks with ice-breakers, long
poles, and hooks, meet with their sleighs at the place which has been
designated, usually near the deep places, " yatoves," where the stur-
geon are hiding for the winter. AVheu all have arrived, they place
their sleighs in a row, and wait for the signal in the most profound
silence. A cannon shot is heard, and all the Cossacks rush on to the
ice with the greatest emulation. Each one selects his place, rapidly
works a hole in the ice, and plunges his hooked rod in. The holes are
generally round, and have a diameter of half an " arsheen," (1 foot 2
inches.) The hooks are lowered to the bottom of the river, and they
are constantly taken up and baited. The sturgeons, some of which
remain entirely quiet in their " yatoves," while others are frightened at
being disturbed in their rest, soon become the prey of the fishermen,
who, over a space 1£ " versts " (almost a mile) long and 00 " sagenes " (41*0
feet) broad, frequently work no less than 10,000 rods armed with hooks.
As soon as a fisherman sees, by the strong movement of the water,
that a sturgeon approaches his hook, he raises it suddenly, draws it
back, and hauls the captured fish on the ice.

This fishing goes on over certain fixed areas. After a certain area
has been exhausted, the fishermen pass on to another, leaving the ice
pierced by innumerable holes, and covered with some inches of water
reddened by the blood of the fish.

Fishrgigs. — This fishing-implement consists of an iron fork with two
pointed and barbed prongs, which is attached to a pole. Cyprinus car-
pio and Sllurus glanis are caught with the fish-gig among the reeds and
water-plants. This fishing takes place in the spring.

7. — IMPORTANCE OF A " VATAGA," (FTSHING-ESTABLISHMENT.)

By a " vataga " must be understood an entire fishing-establishment,
such as are found on the banks of the Volga and its several branches.
The " vataga" comprises dwelling-houses for the proprietors of the es-
tablishment, and for the inspectors and laborers, and warehouses and
sheds for keeping the fishing-implements ; also salt-warehouses, provi-
sion-warehouses, buildings for dressing and salting fish, and for manu-
facturing isinglass, caviar, and fish-oil. The shore is covered with large
and small fishing-boats, and everywhere there is bustle and activity.

No such establishments are found on the banks of the Ural, where
the fish is generally cut and dressed in the open air, and where it is
salted in tubs protected by a roof of reed or plank.

The buildings in which the fish are dressed are constructed on piles,
rising several feet above the surface of the water, and these form vast
halls, which are floored and have a roof. In the walls, there are large
doors. The two doors on the water-side open on inclined planes, form-
ing a sort of plank-bridge over the water. Very large fish are hoisted
by means of winches on to this bridge from the boats, while the small

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 81

fish are thrown on to it with boat-books. An inspector receives, counts,
and registers all the fish which each fisherman delivers. The various
kinds of sturgeon — the "red fish," or the "fish proper," as it is called —
are measured from the middle of the eye to the caudal fin ; for the fish-
ermen receive more or less pay according to the different lengths of the
fish. The scale of prices, according to the length of the fish, is nearly
the same in all the " vatagas" of the Astrachan district.

Four different lengths are fixed for the "belouga," (Acipenser Huso,)
3 "arsheens," (7 feet,) and over; 1 "arsheen" 10 "vershocks" to 3
"arsheens," (3 feet 9£ inches to 7 feet;) 1 "arsheen" 4 "vershocks" to
1 "arsheen" 10 "vershocks," (2 feet 11 inches to 3 feet 9£ inches;) and
1 "arsheen" to 1 "arsheen" 4 "vershocks," (2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 11
inches.)

The common sturgeon should measure 1 "arsheen" to 1 "arsheen "6
"vershocks," (2 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 2\ inches;) the "sevriouga,"
(Acipenser stellatus,) and the " chyp," (Acipenser tSchypa,) from f "ar-
sheen" to 1 "arsheen" 1 " vershock,"(l footO inches to 2 feet 5f inches;)
the "sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) from 4 to 7 "vershocks," (7 inches
to 12^ inches;) the "som," (Siluvus glanis,) from 1 "arsheen" to 1J
" arsheens," (2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 11 inches ;) and the " sazane," (Cy-
prinus carpio,) from 8 to 12 "vershocks," (1 foot 1^ inches to 1 foot .9
inches) and over.

The "soudak," (Lucioperca sandra ;) the "bersche," (Lucioperca rolge-
nis;) the "lestche," (Abramis brama;) the " besckenka," (Alosa pontica ;)
the " jeleznitsa," (Alosa caspica,) while other scaly fish are not measured,
but counted.

After the fish have been delivered, they are cut, and the entrails
taken out. For all this work, there are special laborers, who display an
almost incredible amount of skill and rapidity, and who receive wages
which are fixed beforehand by free contract.

The head and tail of the large sturgeons are cut off, and the belly is
removed from the pectoral air-bladder to the tail. The belly of the
smaller " belouga " and the common sturgeon is opened, and the head is
split as far as the nasal cartilage. The "sevriougas" (Acipenser stella-
tus) are split into two halves, and the entrails thrown away. The roe,
the swimming-bladder, and the dorsal cord, however, are carefully taken
out. These parts of the fish are handed to other laborers whose special
occupation is the manufacture of caviar and isinglass, which is carried
on in separate buildings. Laborers engaged in the manufacture of
caviar receive the highest annual wages.

A large number of young girls and women are occupied in cutting the

fish. They all wear a peculiar working-dress, consisting of breeches and

a jacket; their head and half their body being covered. A sharp knife

in one hand, and a little hook in the other, the working-woman begins

her labor. Crouched with crossed legs on a straight bench, she picks

up a fish with her hook, opens' its belly, takes out the entrails, and
6 F

82 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

throws the fish into a corner, where a large heap is soon piled up. Dur-
ing this time, other women are splitting and cutting the fish with no less
skill, and stringing them on threads made of the fiber of the bark of
the linden-tree, which they pass through the eyes of the fish by means
of a large needle. The skill and rapidity of these women are truly ad-
mirable. Enormous piles of fish which encumbered the floor disappear
in a few hours, and pass to another building to be salted. A skillful
woman can dress as many as 2,000 Lucioperca during a siugle day.

The building in which the scaly fish are salted has a long shape,
usually several doors, and contains tubs and wooden boxes of different
sizes. A box 3 " arsheens " (7 feet ) deep 4 " arsheens " (9 feet 6 inches)
broad, and 8 "arsheens" (18 feet 8 inches) long, can hold 100,000 Alosa
or 45,000 Abramis or 30,000 Lucioperca or 2,000 "pouds" (72,000 pounds)
of sturgeon of different kiuds. The tubs have generally a diameter of
4J "arsheens," (10 feet 6 inches,) and a depth of 31 "arsheens," (8 feet 2
inches,) and can hold 45,000 Alosa or 20,000 Abramis. The numberof tubs
and boxes varies according to the locality. Thus, the "vataga" (fishing-
establishment) of Petropovlovsk, fifty "versts" (about twenty-seven
miles) above Astrachan, on the banks of the Volga, has four large cel-
lars, each holding from 30 to 40 large boxes, destined chiefly for salting
the various kinds of Alosa.

The so-called " cold cellars" are particularly grand; here blocks of ice
are piled up behind a wooden lattice, leaving a space of 1^ " sagenes "
(10 feet G inches) free along the walls of the cellar. Entering a salting-
cellar through the large door, one sees first the rooms where salt is pul-
verized by machines ; then the cellar itself, in which there is a long
floored corridor, running between high and strong wooden pillars. To
the right and left of this " corridor," the boxes are ranged side by side.
The roof, which rests on numerous pillars, has sky-lights which give
sufficient light for the whole cellar. In the roof, there is also a large
opening, from which an inclined plane, made of planks, leads into the
cellar. On this inclined plane, the " belougas" and large sturgeons are
easily let down into the cellar. Several ventilators keep the air con-
stantly pure.

8. — PREPARING THE FISH AND ITS SEVERAL PARTS.

Salting. — After having been dressed, the fish are, under the super-
intendence of, the Salter, placed in layers in the boxes above mentioned
in such a manner that the heads and tails alternate. The Salter then
throws, with a shovel, the necessary quantity of salt on every layer of
fish; the quantity of salt varying according to the kind of fish, and ac-
cording to the season. In the Astrachan " vatagas," (fishing-establish-
ments,) it is customary to take from 27 to 30 "pouds" (972 to 1,080
pounds) of salt in the spring, and from 18 to 20 "pouds" (048 to 720
pounds) in the autumn to every 1,000 Lucioperca; from 7 to 9 " pouds "
(252 to 324 pounds) in the spring, and from 4 to " pouds " (144 to 21 G

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 83

pounds) in the autumn, to every 1,000 Abramis, Perca fluviatilis, and As-
pins rapax; and, on an average, 10 " ponds," (360 pounds,) to 1,000 Alosa.
A thousand small Cyprinus carpio, L., require from 15 to 18 " ponds" (540
to 618 pounds) of salt.

A thousand fresh fish have the following average weight: Cyprinus
carpio. L., 120 " ponds," (4,320 pounds ;) Lucioperca sandra and Esox In-
dus, 100 "ponds," (3,600 pounds;) Lucioperca volgensis, 55 " pouds,"
(1,980 pounds;) Abramis brama and Aspius rapax, 50 "pouds," (1,800
pounds;) Perca fluviatilis, 35 "pouds," (1,290 pounds;) Scardinius ery-
throphthahnus, L., 32 " pouds," (1,152 pounds;) and the various kinds of
Alosa, from 20 to 25 " pouds," (720 to 900 pounds.)

The differents kinds of sturgeon and the Silurus require from 12 to 13
pounds of salt to every " pond " (30 pounds) of fish ; and the large Cy-
prinus carpio, L., the Salmo salar, and the Coreyonus leucichhys, Giildeust.,
12£ pounds to every " poud " of fish, (36 pounds.)

In the autumn, the back, and not the belly, of the scaly fish is split
open, so as to let the salt saturate more thoroughly.

The fish remain a longer or shorter time in the box according to the
different species : Lucioperca, one month ; Cyprinus carpio, L., 6 days ;
Silurus, till autumn ; Abramis, 12 days; the i different kinds of Alosa till
the month of June. The brine of the Lucioperca is again used for salt-
ing the Abramis or the Leuciscus rutilus, while the brine of the other
scaly fish is thrown away.

In the spring, the fish are taken from the boxes, washed, and dried
on poles. This is done particularly with the Lucioperca, the Abramis,
and the Leuciscus rutilus, L. ; while the Cyprinus carpio is dried on hur-
dles made of reeds. The drying process being completed, the fish are
taken from the poles, or from the hurdles, laid up in warehouses, and in
July shipped by steamer toNijni-Novgorod. In September, large boats
arrive at the " vatagas," (fishing-establishments,) where they buy the
fish on the spot, being salted before they are shipped.

The so-called herring, Alosa caspica, is not dressed, but is salted as it is.
Up to the years 1854 and 1855, the Astrachan herriug were only used for
extracting the oil from them. Even poor people, frightened by its name,
" beschenka," (the furious fish,) hesitated to use it for food. It is owing
to the efforts of the committee appointed for examining the fisheries under
the direction of Mr. Baer that several lessees of the fisheries finally con-
sented to salt the " beschenka " and the "jeleznitsa" under the name
of " herring." From that time, the Astrachan herring, as a salt fish, has
become more and more an artisle of commerce, while the extraction of
oil from it has diminished in proportion. Thus, there were salted in the
river-waters of Astrachan, in 1858, 43,000,000 of this fish, while the num-
ber rose to 140,000,000 in 1871, and to 160,000,000 in 1872 ; while during
the same year, 1872, only 30.000 herring were used in the manufacture
of oil.

The " belouga," (Acipenser huso,) and the " sevriouga," (Acipenser

84 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

stcllatus,) taken in the spring, remain for six mouths in the boxes, till
the salting and hardening process is complete. Afterward they are
taken out, dried superficially, and packed in casks.

Those kinds of sturgeon which are caught from spring till the mid-
dle of July are transported, during September and October, on wagons
to the Saratov fair; while the fish of this kiud caught between the 8th
of July and the 15th of August are shipped the following spring to
Nijui-Novgorod on large boats, which are towed by steamers.

The sturgeon caught in the district of Emba, the northeastern basin
of the sea, are salted on board of large fishing-boats called " koujovaya."

The fish, having been dressed, are usually laid in brine for two days,
and then they are placed in layers at the bottom of the boat, each layer
being covered with salt.

The fishermen return from their fishing-expeditions on the sea to As-
trachan at the end of June, and keep the fish they have caught in ware-
houses till a transport starts for Nijui-Novgorod.

The sturgeons caught from the 15th of August till the first frost are
preserved in the wells (boxes in the hold of the vessel filled with fresh
water and used for keeping fish) in order to be shipped at a later time.

Manufacture of caviar. — Two sorts of caviar are manufactured, fresh
or grained caviar, and hard or pressed caviar. In both cases, the
roe of the several kinds of sturgeon is spread out on a net with narrow
meshes forming a sieve, and stretched over a wooden frame ; then the
grains are passed through the meshes by slightly pressing the whole
mass till nothing remains on the sieve but the cellular tissue, the fat,
and the muscle. The grains, which are black or brown, fall through the
sieve into a wooden receptacle placed underneath. For manufacturing
grained caviar, the roe is sprinkled with very clean and fine salt, and
the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork having eight or ten prongs.
The quantity of salt required varies, according to the season, from 5
to If pounds ; in August they take from 3 to 5 pounds of salt to 1
"poud" (36 pounds) of roe, and from 2£ to If in winter. The less the
fresh caviar is salted the more it is esteemed. The roe mixed with the
salt presents at first a doughy appearance when it is stirred ; but when
every grain has been impregnated with salt, the whole mass swells, and
in stirring it a slight noise is perceptible like that of stirring small
grains of glass. This noise is the sign that the caviar is ready. Then
it is packed in casks made of lindenwood, which does not impart any
bad flavor to it, while this is not the case with casks made of other
wood.

For manufacturing pressed caviar, a tub half filled with brine is placed
under the sieve ; the brine being stronger or weaker, according to the
temperature and the season. To impregnate the grains evenly with
brine, the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork, always turning it
from the same side ; then the grains are taken out with line sieves, and
after the whole briue has been drained, 3 "pouds'' (108 pounds) of

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 85

grains are put in a sack made of the bark of the linden, which is placed
under the press in order to get all the brine out of the caviar, and to
transform it to a solid mass. In thus pressing the caviar, a large number
of grains are crushed, and a portion of their contents flows out with the
brine, so that on every " poud " (30 pounds) there is a loss of from 10 to
12 pounds. After having taken the pressed caviar from the sacks, it is
packed in casks containing 30 "pouds" (1,080 pounds) each, the inside
of which is covered with napkin-linen, this being the reason why the
caviar is also called "napkin -caviar," (caviar a la serviette.)

The finest quality of pressed caviar, that which has been least pressed
and salted, is placed in straight linen bags of a cylindrical shape, and
is then called " sack-caviar," (caviar a sac.) Caviar is also shipped in
tin boxes hermetically closed and soldered.

Fresh caviar is always preferred to pressed caviar, and also costs more.
At Astrachan, fresh caviar costs from 30 to 35 " roubles" ($21 to .$21.50
gold) the "poud," (3G pounds,) while the pressed caviar only costs 21
" roubles," ($10.80 gold.) It is infinitely more advantageous to manu-
facture grained caviar than hard caviar, because the former pays better,
requires less salt and less trouble, and there is scarcely any loss on it.

Every year about 11,000 " pouds" (300,000 pounds) of caviar are sent
abroad from Astrachan, especially to Berlin, to Dresden, aud to Vienna.
This caviar is bought by contract from the proprietors of the fisheries,
who either get it from their own fisheries or from fishermen hired by
them for this purpose, aud who prepare the caviar on their own boats
while fishing on the sea. There are in the " vatagas" (fishing-establish-
ments) special laborers for manufacturing caviar, who receive an auuual
salary of 300, 400, and even GOO "roubles," ($210, $280, to $120 gold,)
besides board, lodging, fuel, and light.

In trade, the caviar of the " belouga " (Acipenser huso) is esteemed
more highly than that of the common sturgeon, (Acipenser Guhlenstadtii,)
or of the " sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus,) because its grains are larger
and better looking. The most savory of all caviars is the small grained
caviar of the " sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) but it does not form an
article of commerce.

All the different kinds of sturgeon have not equally fat roe. This de-
pends both on the good quality of the fish and on the season when it has
been caught. The fattest caviar is that made, during the hot season, from
the roe of those kinds of sturgeons which are caught in the sea between
the 8th of July and the 15th of August. This roe is left only a few
hours in the brine, and then taken out aud packed, without being
pressed, in casks holding from 5 to 10 "pouds" (180 to 3G0 pounds) each.
If the roe is tender to the touch in the ovaries, and is already spoiled,
roe and ovaries are thrown into the brine till they are tuoroughly im-
pregnated with salt. This is then caviar of the worst quality, and
is shipped in casks holding from 27 to 30 " pouds," (972 to 1,080 pounds.)
This quality is worth only from 3 to 4 "roubles" ($2.10 to $2.80 gold)

86 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the " poud," (36 pounds.) The kind called "summer-caviar," however,
sells at from 6 to 9 "roubles," ($4.20 to $0.30 gold.)

The milt of the " belouga"( Acipenser huso) aud of the common stur-
geon (Acipenser Guldenstadtii) is left from three to four days in the
brine, and then shipped in barrels. The milt of a"belouga" of medium
size often weighs 27 pounds, and that of the common sturgeon 12 pounds.

The roe of the "lestche," (Abraniis brama,) of the " soudak," (Lucio-
perca sandra,) and of the " vobla," (Leuciscus rutilus, L.,) is also used for
making a kind of caviar which is chiefly sent to Constantinople and to
Greece. Greek merchants come to Astrachan, buy the roe of these fish
at the " vatagas " (fishing-establishments,) and there prepare the caviar
themselves. They draw from the body of the fish the little bags which
contain the roe, throw them together promiscuously, and cover each
layer with a certain quantity of salt. They then press the whole be-
tween boards weighted down by heavy stones. This caviar remains thus
for a month, after which the Greeks put it in casks aud ship it. Caviar
which has been thus prepared is cut in slices shaped like disks, and is
much sought after in Greece.

Manufacture of isinglass. — The bladder of fish, which is known in
trade by the name of "feuille d'esturgeon" in French, "Hauseublase" in
German, and "isinglass" in English, is extracted from the inner side
of the swimming-bladder, not only of the " belouga," but also of other
kinds of sturgeon, as likewise of the Silurus glanis and of the Cyprinus
carpio. It is true that the large sturgeon yields the greatest quantity of
bladder, but the best is that of the common sturgeon, (Acipenser Gulden-
stddlii,) while the most inferior quality is that which comes from the
Silurus. Good isinglass must be pure, white, shining, half- transparent,
dry, and horny, without taste, but not without some perfume. Good
fish-bladder dissolves in water heated to 30 or 40 degrees Eeaumur
(about 100 to 122 degrees Fahrenheit) without leaving any residue, and
when it grows cold it becomes a transparent aud almost colorless gelatine.

The fish-bladder is mostly prepared by young boys, superintended by
experienced laborers. First, the swimming bladder of the fish is thrown
into the water, where it is left for several days ; the water being fre-
quently changed, in order to detach all the fatty aud bloody particles
from the bladder. The hotter the water the quicker is this done. The
bladders are then taken out, and cut lengthwise into strips, which are
exposed to the sun and air. These strips, or leaves, are usually spread
out, in order to dry them, with their outer side on small boards of
lindenwood ; the inner side is formed by leaves [lamellae) of pure
isinglass, which, after having been well dried, are carefully detached
from the outer side. The leaves of isinglass thus obtained are laid
between pieces of linen, to preserve them from the flies and from dust;
then they are placed under a press, so that they may not become
warped, but may form smooth cakes. It is only after all these different
operations have been performed that the laborer proceeds to pick the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 87

leaves and tie them in bundles. These bundles of isinglass, produced
from the large sturgeon, are usually composed of from ten to fifteen
leaves, and weigh 1^ pounds each; while those of the common sturgeon,
or of the "sevriouga," contain twenty-five leaves, and weigh one pound
each. Generally, eighty of these bundles are sewed up in a linen bag;
they are also made up into small bales, covered with rush mats or with
liuen, and are then shipped, after being securely headed.

The " poud" (36 pounds) of " sturgeon-leaf" costs in Astrachau from
120 to 180 " roubles," ($84 to $126 gold.)

The swimming-bladder, deprived of its inner skin, that is, of the inner
shining cuticle of which isinglass is made, as described above, still con-
tains a certain quantity of glue, which is moistened with water, and then
removed by scraping it with a knife; this is also moistened with water,
and then kneaded. This mass is molded into small round tablets of
the size of a dollar, which are dried. This kind of fish-glue is shipped in
sacks, and costs less than the isinglass in leaves.

The leaves of the glue from the Silurus are arranged in book-form,
and are dried on thin cords. They are shipped in bags containing 4
" pouds" (144 pounds) each. The glue gained from the Cyprinus carpio
is also in leaves, arrauged in packages of 30 each.

Some persons at Astrachau have manufactured good fish-glue from
the scales of fish. Even at this day there lives iu the Cossack village of
Samyani, 60 " versts " (about 34£ miles) above Astrachau, a surgeon
named Sokologorski, who, from the scales of the Alosa, extracts glue in
thin and transparent leaves. According to his account, two pounds of
this glue are as good as one " poud " (30 pounds) of sturgeon-glue.
Unfortunately, he has not the necessary means to enable him to place
any considerable quantity of his manufactures in the market.

Formerly, the shining cuticle of the swimming-bladder was dried, and
cut into long, straight strips, which were tied alternately together, one
by the side of the other and one on the top of the other. These strips
thus tied were then laid in water to become soft, and afterward pressed
to let the water run off. This matter was then molded into different
figures, such as horseshoes, lyres, hearts, cylinders, &c. Small wooden
bolts kept these figures in their original shape till they were completely
dry. The Ural Cossacks, even to this day, make " glue hearts," which
they put up in. packages of 42. It requires 1,500 ki glue lyres " to make
one " poud," (36 pounds,) and from 7,000 to 10,000 "glue horseshoes"
to make the same weight.

Isinglass is used for clarifying various liquids, for making fine glue-
colors, for giving a gloss and finish to textile fabrics, for making plas-
ters, for taking the impress of coins, and finally in the kitchen for
making jellies.

Manufacture of u veziga. v — "Veziga" is the name given to the dried
dorsal cord of various kinds of sturgeon. After the entrails, the roe,
and the swimming-bladder have been taken out of the fish, a small

88 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

iucisiou is made in the flesh, and, the finger being inserted, the dorsal
cord is drawu out. This cord has the shape of a long and straight rib-
bon. It is carefully washed, and pressed, so that the soft matter which
it contains oozes out, after which it is dried during from three to eight
days, according to the season. When the "veziga" is entirely dry, it is
put up in packages, fifty of which form a bale weighing one "pond,"
(30 pounds.) A package of " veziga" of the " belouga" (Acipenser huso)
contains twelve dried dorsal cords, while there are twenty in a package
of "veziga" of the Acipenser GuldenstadtU, the Acipenser stellatus, and
the Acipenser schypa. A thousand "belougas" of medium size gen-
erally produce 5 " pouds" (180 pounds) of "veziga;" but the same num-
ber of common sturgeon, (Acipenser GuldenstadtU,) and of Acipenser stel-
latus, yield only 1 "poud," (30 pounds.) When the "veziga" is boiled, it
rises, and in this condition it is cut into small pieces, which form an im-
portant ingredient in excellent little fish-pies. The "veziga" is not used
for anything else. It costs from 15 to 20 "roubles" ($10.50 to $14 gold)
a "poud," (30 pounds.)

Manufacture of u balyk." — The Tartar word "balyk" means "fish,"
and is used in Russian for the backs of sturgeons which have been
slightly salted and then dried in the sun. For making good "balyk,"
a large and tolerably fat fish is selected, whose head, tail, sides, and
belly are taken off. That which remains, the dorsal part, has to undergo
a special salting, while the other parts are salted in the usual manner.
The back of the common sturgeon (Acipenser GuldenstadtU) and of the
"sevriouga" (Acipenser stellatus) remain entire, while those of the large
sturgeon (Acipenser Huso) are cut, either lengthwise only, or else both
lengthwise and crosswise. The pieces are placed in a tub so as not to
touch each other nor the sides of the tub; and they are left thus after
having been covered with a thick layer of salt from nine to twelve
days, and even fifteen days when the pieces are large and the weather
is hot. The salt is mixed with a little saltpeter, to give to the " balyk "
a reddish color, (2 pounds of saltpeter to 50 "pouds" (1,800 pounds)
of " balyk.") Allspice, cloves, and bay -leaves are frequently put into
the brine. When the salting is finished, the " balyk" is put into water
for a day or two, in order to detach all particles of the brine from it.
Thereupon it is dried, first in the sun and then in the shade, on roofed
scaffoldings, which are erected for the purpose. This last-mentioned
operation requires from four to six weeks, and is considered finished
when the " balyk " begins to cover with a slight mold, the absence of
which shows that it has been salted too much.

Good "balyk" must be as soft and tender as smoked salmon ; must
have a reddish or orange-brown color ; and must have an odor something
like that of the cucumber; it must also be transparent, show no traces
of putrefaction, nor have a bitter taste ; and, finally, it must not be too
salty. There are very few manufacturers who can prepare "balyk"
that has all these qualities. A " poud" (30 pounds) of good " balyk"

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 89

costs at the manufactory at least 18 "roubles," ($12.60 gold,) and at
retail it can seldom be bought for less than 1 "rouble" (70 cents gold)
a pound. The " balyk " made in March is considered the best.

On the banks of the Koura, and in the trans-Caucasian waters, where
the " sevriouga " (Acipenser stcllatus) is caught in large numbers,
" balyk " is made of at least 300,000 of these fish every year. This
" balyk," commonly called " djirim," is not of the first quality. It is
dry, very salty, and is much sought after by the inhabitants of Kache-
tia, because it produces thirst and gives them occasion to quench it
with the excellent production of their vineyards.

A large sturgeon of 20 "ponds " (720 pounds) yields 5 "ponds" (180
pounds) of "balyk;" a very large "sevriouga," 15 pounds; a common-
sized " sevriouga," 4 pounds ; and the common sturgeon, from 8 to 12
pounds.

Manufacture of oil. — Oil is extracted either from the fat which in-
closes the entrails of the sturgeon and the Lucioperca, or from the
whole body of the Astrachan herring, (Alosa pontica and Alosa caspica.)
In the first case, the fat is taken out, washed, and cut into pieces, which
are thrown into a tub, with from 10 to 15 pounds of salt for the whole
mass. The whole is then well shaken in a caldron, and placed on the
fire ; this caldron being put inside a larger copper caldron, in which
the water is boiled, thus causing the fat in the inner caldron to melt.
When the oil swims on the surface, it is skimmed off and poured into
oakwood barrels. This oil is pure and has a light-yellow color. It is
used for cooking-purposes, and for softening caviar when it has become
too dry.

Oil was made from x\strachan herring on a very large scale till the
year 1854, when people commenced to salt this fish. Other scaly fish,
even the " sterliad," [Acipenser ruthenns,) were used for making oil.
The period from April 15 to May 5, fixed for this manufacture, was
scarcely ever observed. This period is still considered the legal period
for the " vatagas" (fishing-establishments) located below Astrachan ;
while for those above this city, the time for making oil is between April
20 and May 10. Any person taken in the manufacture of oil before or
after this period has to pay a fine of 25 "roubles" ($17.50 gold) for
every day beyond the legal period.

The manufacture of oil is carried on in the open air. The Alosa are
piled up in casks and tubs, and are constantly moistened with boiling
water till the oil separates and swims on the surface. The oil is poured
into barrels, and sold at from 2 "roubles" 75 "kopecks" ($1.92£ gold)
to 3 " roubles" 25 " kopecks" ($2.27£ gold) a " poud," (3G pounds.) It
is used in soap-factories and in tanneries ; it is also burned in lamps
and used in making oil varnish.

The residue must be buried in the ground, and it is strictly forbidden
to throw it into the water. Any violation of this regulation is punished
with a fine of 100 " roubles," ($70 gold.)

90

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Since the year 1870, people have commenced, although it is properly
not allowed, to make oil of lampreys, (Petromyzon fluviatilis,) which, in
December and January, appear in great numbers in the Volga above
Astrachau. These fish yield no less than 8 pounds of oil per thousand
fish; and this oil, which costs 3 "roubles" ($2.10) a " poud," (36 pounds,)
is pure and clear, although containiug a good deal of glue. It is not
probable that this industry will develop much; for several " vatagas"
(fishing-establishments) have already begun to pickle the lamprey,
which forms iu this shape a very savory dish. Thus, in October last,
a merchant of Tchoruoi-Yar, Sabourow by name, sent to St. Petersburg
for experienced laborers to pickle 3,000 "pouds" (108,000 pounds) of
lamprey. A thousand lampreys weigh not less than 140 pounds.

9. — MARKET-PRICE OF FISH AND THEIR PRODUCTS.
Tabic of the marlcet-prices since the year 1868, when fishing in the sea was declared perfectly free.

PEIi "POUD," 36 POUNDS.

Acipenser huso

Acipenser Guldenstcidtii of
3' 6"

Of 2' 4"

Acipenser stellatus of 2' 4".

Less than 2' 4"

Acipenser sc.hypa

Siiurus glanis of 3' 0"

Of 2' 4"

Coregonus leucichthys

A cipenser ruthenus

Cyprinus carpio, dried

Salt

Tinea vulgaris and Perca

fluviatilis

Esox lucius, salt

Heads of Acipenser huso,

salt

Belly of Acipenser Imso . . .
Caviar, pressed

Made iu summer

Inferior quality

Fresh caviar of Acipenser
huso

Of Acipenser Gulden-

stddtii

Milt of sturgeon

Oil

Abramis brama

Lucioperca volyensis

Seals

$1 33 toll 574 $1 47 to§l 50A $1 01

From July 1,
1806, to July
1, 1867.

From July 1,
ltG7, to July
1, 18G8.

From July 1,
1868, to July
1, 1869.

574

014.

29§

734

33

12

63

22*

70
35

28
804

70
45
75

55
80

11 40

8 92J
35
1 75

56
244.
1 33

2 06 i
1 54
1 82
98
1 57*

84

2 80
12 60

17 50
12 60

1 57*

1 47
1 29i
91 .
1 47

12

63

40
8?4
77
03

454

77
45
75
20
35

11 20

03

50J
68"
084
50j

59A

2 80
12 60

17 50
11 20

8 92J

70
1 47 1 96

56 59*

244.

84

Si 01 to 1 92A §2 38

574 to 82 03

01 i
29J

08^

504.

12

63

70

154

28
384

77
2 80
8 05
4 20
2 35

11 40

1 50}

1 75

14 00

From July 1,
1809, to July
1, 1870.

From July 1,
1870, to July
1, 1871.

38

10

92J

714

784.

26

70

75

75

94i

5-4

35

84

1 05

2 80
9 80
6 30

3 15

18 20 11 20

9 80

8 40
1 05
1 47 1 68

63

24*

91

45

31

03

82

89J

68

98

80

05
594.

3 08
2 67
2 73
2 5"2
2 38
1 26 to$l 54

63
75
75
05
49

35

91

1 221
3 321 3 15

15 40" 10 50
5 60

2 75

19 60

11 20
1 05
1 54 2 17

77
24J
1 40

11 90

7 70
1 05

1 92}
91
35

2 33

84
2 45

59*

3 85
15 40

19 60
11 20

2 274

PEK THOUSAND.

Alosa

Abramis brama, salt, large

Salt, small

Aspiu< rapax

"Sertes"

Leuciscus rutilus

Perca fluviatilis

7 52^
16 10

8 05
4 37J
2 10

70
2 10

18 90

9 45

4 55

1 75

2 80

7 524
10 80

8 40
4 20
3 30

1 26

2 80

4 20

18 90 16 80

9 45 j 8 40

4 444

4 55

2 27ft

4 20
4 20

1 05

2 45

6 30

19 6.1

9 80

4 721

19 00
9 80
3 50
3 50
1 40
3 15

6 30

23 20

12 60

4 90

4 90

3 15

4 20

27
40
20
90
90
10
90

7 70
25 20
12 00
7 CO
7 00
4 55

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

91

10. — PR10E OF FISH AS FIXED BY AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE FISHER-
MEN AND THE FISHING-HOUSES.

The fishing-houses pay to the fishermen whom they hire either an
annual salary, or a fixed price, determined by agreement for every kind
offish and the articles manufactured from hsh. The fishermen have no
fishing-implements, and receive these from the fishing-houses. They
are principally engaged for seine-fishing, serve as rowers, or work at
the "vatagas," (fishing-establishmeuts.) Russians very seldom hire
themselves out by the year, while the Kalmyks do this exclusively.
The annual salary is in proportion to their skill, experience, and dili-
gence.

Those fishermen who are paid according to the number of fish caught
nearly all owu a little house, horses or cattle, boats, or other property,
which assure them credit at the fishing-houses, and serve as a guar-
antee for the payment of indemnities in case they do not fulfill the con-
ditions to which they have bound themselves by agreement. They
receive the earnest-money in advance to buy fishing-implements and
equip their boats. This subsidy is much more considerable for those
who fish in the sea than for those who fish in the river; for the former
must have a spacious, safe, and solidly-built sail-boat, and also a larger
number of workmen. Moreover, they are exposed to all kinds of priva-
tions and dangers.-

Contracts are made in July. The fishing-year commences July 1. If
the year has been favorable, the fisherman, after paying back the
earnest-money, has a considerable sum left ; if, on the other hand, it
has been unfavorable, the fisherman finds it difficult to meet all his
expenses, and he is obliged to contract debts, which he is never able to
pay.

Tabic showing the beneficial influence which the liberty of fishing in the sea has had on the

wages of fishermen.

Acipcnser huso

(December 1 to February 15) .
Acipcnser Gulden stddtii, (3' 6")

(December 1 to February 15).

(2' 4") :

(December 1 to February 15)
Acipcnser stellatus, (2' 4")

(1'9")

(December 1 to February 15).

Adpenser Schypa

• (December I to February 15) .
Heada of Acipenter huso ....

The flshermeu have received the following prices
per " poud," (36 pounds.)

£»

a •>
° S

Eh

$0 5G
1 CI

91
1 61

63
1 61

91

63
1 61

52.'

21

i— T*-*

o o
Eh

SO 56

26
91
26
63
26
77
63
26
521

£0

o o

$0 70
1 26

96
1 26

63
1 26

84

63
1 26

24i i 24 i

"3 >>

o o

Eh

§1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

111

75
40
75
75
75
40
05
75

ty

75

36*

5 o
u ■**
Eh

f 1 26
2 10

47
10
0SA
10

47

1 76J

in
26
10
36$

p o
Eh

$1 54
2 10

1 75

2 10

1 22£

2 10
1 75

1 22J

2 10

1 54

2 10
52J

92 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Tabic showing the beneficial influence, $'C. — Continued.

Caviar of Acipe nser huso.

(July 1 to September 1)

(September 1 to December 1)

(December 1 to February 15)

Caviar of second quality, made iu summor

Caviar of inferior quality 7

Caviar of Acipenscr Guldenstcidtii and of Acipenser
stellatus :

(.July 1 to December 1 )

(December 1 to February 15) ,

(February 15 to July 1)

Silurus qlanis, (3' 6'') . . .'

(2' 4")

Corcgonus leuchichthys

Seals in spring

In autumn

Acipenser ruthenus

Cyprinus carpio. L.:

(1' 9" ami more, in spring)

(1' 55" to 1'9", in spring)

(1' 9" and more, in autumn)

(1/ 5$" to V 9", in autumn)

(1' 2" to 1' 5}", salt) ,

Salting Lucioperca sandra at the " vataga "

Salting Lucioperca sandra on the boat

Salting Esoxlucius in spring

In autumn

Salting large-sized Abramis brama, strongly

Slightly

Large-sized Abramis brama, salted and dried
Salting medium-sized Abramis brama strongly
Salting medium-sized Abramis brama slightly.
Medium-sized Abramis brama salted and dried .

Salting Aspius rapax

Suiting Lucioperca volgensis strongly

Slightly

Alosa

Salting Leuciscus rutilus

Salting and drying

Salting Scardinius erythrophthelmus

Slightly I.

Salting and drying

The fishermen have received tbo following prices
per " poud," (36 pounds.)

^ 3

S

$4 27

6 37

7 91
2 10

70

27
37
27
35

21

21
35

10 50

11 20
5 00

3 50

4 90

3 50
'3" 50

1 40

1 05
1 05

52*
07"
21
70

1 40

.=.<=

o o

$4 27

6 37

8 12

2 10

70

27
12
27
35
17J
21'
21
35

£2

3 >>

^3

o o

$4 90

7 70

8 40
2 10

70

90

in

55

35

17i

21

21

35

s >>

O O

87 00

11 90

11 90

2 10

70

6 30

6 30

6 30

35

17*
.21
35
05

o

o o

$7 35

12 25

12 60

2 10

70

65

65

55

49

-li

21

35

70

PEIi THOUSAND.

10 50

11 20
5 CO

3 50

4 90

3 50
350

9 10
1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52i

07

21

70

1 40

10 50

11 20
5 60

17 50
8 75

3 50

4 90

3 50

3 50

9 10
1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52.
07
70

70

1 75

10 50

11 20

5 60

17 50

8 75

3 50

4 90

3 50
"350

9 10

1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52J
07
1 05

70

2 45

21 00

11

5
17
8
3
5
7
4
4

4 20

07'
05
70

2 45

. XJ

5 >•

^3

c o

§8 40

13 30

12 60

2 10

70

7 70

7 70
7 70
70
49
24*
35
70
21

21 00

11 20

5 60
28 00
10 50

3 50
7 70

28 00

4 20
28 00

5 60
. 8 75

10 50
2 80

75
65
05

1 05

2 80
52*
07

1 05

1 05

2 80
2 80

11. — SEAL-HUNTING.

The seal, which is very common in the Caspian Sea, (Phoca caspica-,)
is from 3 to 6 feet long, weighs from 2 to 4 "pouds," (72 to 141 pounds,)
and has a variegated fur, the back grayish-brown with yellowish stripes.

These seals gather in large herds, and, plungiug continually into the
water, chase scaly fish, of which they eat only the breast, leaving the
remainder of the body, with the entrails, to the sea-birds, which are
constantly hovering above them. Endowed with a very acute sense of
smell, the seals at times escape the vigilance of their enemies, the fish-

of the young, which, inexperi-

ermen, with the exception, however

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 93

enced as they are, follow the fishing-boats for long distances, and seem to
take special pleasure in hearing the fishermen whistle or sing. It is an
interesting spectacle to see the young seals lying on their back, sleep-
ing peaceably while being rocked by the waves, and throwing up from
time to time small jets of water by breathing.

The seals love the cold; and, in the summer, they seek the deep sea,
leaving it in the autumn for their favorite place of abode, the north-
eastern basin of the Caspian Sea, which is the portion first covered with
ice, and where the ice breaks up latest. Numerous herds of seals gather
on pieces of floating ice, to rest or to pair. The pairing-season lasts
from the end of December till January 10. The female every year gives
birth to one young one, seldom to two. The young have a shining
white, silky fur ; but after ten days it becomes coarse and turns gray.
Then the tender solicitude of the mother ceases ; for the little one has
to go into the water and swim. Seals that are one year old have gray
fur speckled with black spots.

The seal is hunted also on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, at
the mouths of the Volga and the Ural, and in its southern part, espe-
cially on the islands of the Gulf of Apchdron.

The principal meeting-places of seal-hunters are on the seven islands sit-
uated north of the Peninsula of Mangyshlak, called the " Seals' Islands,"
on account of the large number of these animals found there. Other
islands also abound in phocse. Thus there have been years when about
40,000 seals were killed on the island of Peshnoi, before the mouths of
the Ural ; and, in 1846, 1,300 were killed in one night.

The seals are hunted in three different ways : they are killed with
clubs on the islands where they gather ; or they are shot with guns ; or
they are caught iu nets.

The first-mentioned way is the graudest, and yields the best results.

The great meeting-place of the huntsmen is Koulali, the largest of
the seal islands, having a length of thirty-five "versts," (about twenty
miles,) and a breadth of three "versts," (about one and two-thirds miles.)
The hunters, who winter there every year, have built wooden houses,
huts, and sheds on this island. The fishing-authorities at Astrachan
send every year one of their officers to Koulali to superintend the chase
and the hunters, where he remains from October till the middle of May.
On account of the bustle and noise, the seals have deserted this island
for a number of years, and selected, for their place of gathering, the
islands of Sviato'i and Podgorno'i.

In the spring and autumn, the seals seek the shore to rest in the sun,
one herd arriving after the other. Scarcely has the first settled, when
a second comes yelling and showing their teeth to drive it away, followed
soon by a third, to which it in turn has to yield its place ; so that the
last herd arriving always drives the first farther back on the coast. The
invasion terminates by the arrival of some isolated stragglers.

Now is the time for the hunters to commence the chase. They care-

94 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

fully observe in what place, and, approximately, in what numbers, the
seals have gathered ; aud then elect as their chief the most experien-
ced and skillful among them. They approach the rookery in boats,
either at dusk or during the night, always goiug against the wind, to
conceal their approach.

After their arrival on shore, the hunters disembark noiselessly, form
a Hue in order to cut off the retreat of the seals, and thus, creeping,
advance quite near to the herd, which is sleeping and suspects no danger.
On a signal from the chief, the hunters all rise at once and pitilessly
attack their unfortunate victims, killing them by a single blow on the
snout with the club. The bodies are piled up by means of gaffs, and
after a few minutes form a rampart, depriving the survivors of every
chance of regaining the sea. The seals howl, groan, bite, and defend
themselves; but the hunters, eager for gain, go on killing them without
mercy, and soon the whole herd is massacred. It is no infrequent
occurrence to see 15,000 dead seals cover the battle-field of a single
night.

After the killing, the dressing of the seals commences, usually about
daybreak.

The head is cut off, the belly is opened, and the skin is taken off with
the thick layer of fat adhering to it. These skins are piled up on the
boats, which take them to large sailing-vessels, anchored some "versts"
from the shore, on which they are heaped up, each layer being covered
with salt. These vessels sail with their cargo to Astrachan, while the
hunters return to the coast to carefully clean the battle-field. They
bury the bodies and entrails, at some distance, deep in the ground, or
throw them into the sea, far from the shore, and carefully obliterate
every trace of blood, so that, when another herd of seals arrives, these
animals do not see any marks of the slaughter which has taken place;
for experience has shown that they never select for their rookery a
place from which every trace of the slaughter has not been carefully
removed.

Two hundred seal-hunters, employed by wealthy merchants or fish-
ermen, usually winter on the island of Koulali. Numerous boats, be-
sides, go there every year to participate in the chase. The masters of
these boats secure permits from the fishing-authorities and give them
to their workmen, who receive their wages in money. The pilot gener-
ally gets from 175 to 300 " roubles," ($122.50 to $210 gold,) and the
workmen from 85 to 125 " roubles," ($59.50 to $87.50 gold.) They are fed
at the expense of the master.

Another way of hunting the seals is to take them with nets. Im-
mense nets are stretched out, into which the hunters endeavor to
chase them by yelling and making a noise. This way of hunting is
chiefly employed in the maritime district of the Ural Cossacks and in
the Gulf of Sineye Mortso, from October till the sea is covered with ice.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 95

The nets, called "okkani," are 6 "sageues" (42 feet) deep, and have
meshes of 7£ inches.

The following is the manner of proceeding: Forty boats join together
and elect a chief and an assistant chief. Then the boats sail out to sea
with a fair wind, or use their oars, going in a line, thus forming a sort
of chain. In every boat, there are three nets. The chief, followed by
twenty boats, is on the lookout for a herd of seals, which he endeavors
to cut off, while his assistant remains with the other half of the fleet at
some distance from the shore. When the chief thinks that the time for
action has come, he gives the signal by throwing into the sea a bale, to
which a flag is fastened. At this signal, the boats simultaneously cast
their nets, which are all tied together so as to form a wall of meshes, by
which the seals are soon completely surrounded. Then the hunters
begin to yell and to strike the water with their oars, in order to
frighten them. These seek to avoid the danger by plunging, but they
rush against the barrier of nets, and are caught in the meshes, so that
they can be killed without difficulty. This way of hunting is prohibited
in those parts of the sea where it injures the fishing or obstructs the first-
mentioned manner of hunting. The chase on the ice is fraught with
many dangers, and is, therefore, at present prohibited. The hunters,
sitting on little sledges drawn by strong and hardy horses, and provided
with food, continue on for several weeks to shoot old seals, and kill
young ones while they still have their white and silk-like fur. These
hunters brave all dangers; and it has sometimes happened that the
south or southwest wind, having detached large masses of ice from the
shore, has driven them out into the open sea, where they have floated
in all directions, with the adventurous huntsmen on them. These un-
fortunate hunters usually perish from cold and hunger on these masses
of ice, or find their death in the waves.

12. — MANUFACTURE OF SEAL-OIL.

The fat adhering to the skin of the seal is detached from it, cut
into pieces, and melted in caldrons, after which the oil is poured in
barrels. This is the simplest way of making seal-oil, aud the hunters
often employ it. But oil is also manufactured by steam in establish-
ments built for this purpose on the left bank of the Volga, opposite As-
trachan, by some rich merchants. Thirty-five " versts " (about twenty
miles) below Astrachan, the Sapojnikow Brothers have built a steam oil-
factory at the "vataga" (flshiug-establishment) of Ikriannaya. This
factory is particularly busy in the spring, when whole cargoes of seal-
fat arrive, which is either boiled immediately in order to extract the
oil, or is safely stored away in cellars. These cellars are long, floored,
and furnished with four ventilators and several windows. Large oak-
wood tubs, plated with lead on the inside, and capable of holding 700
" pouds " (25,200 pounds) of oil each, are placed at intervals in holes
dug in the ground. The oil which runs out from the seal-fat piled up
in layers flows into these tubs by way of an inclined plane. The oil is

96 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

then poured into barrels. In order that the skins, from which the fat
has not yet been removed, may not spoil, they are salted again, just as
it had been done on board the vessels ; 150 " pouds " (5,490 pounds) of
salt being generally used for salting a thousand skins, and only 70
" pouds " (2,520 pounds) per thousand for the final salting, before the
skins are stored in the cellars. Kalmyks are employed ckieily to detach
the fat from the skins. They spread the skin, with the fur down, on an
inclined plank, which they lean against their breast, in order to have
the free use of both their hands. Then, armed with a two-handled
knife, they scrape the fat from the skin. The oil, which is pure and
clear, running down during this operation, flows into a reservoir let into
the ground, holding 400 " pouds," (14,400 pounds,) and forming a cube,
each side of which measures one " sagene," (7 feet.) This work is
extremely fatiguing. A strong and experienced Kalmyk can, how-
ever, clean 500 or even 700 skins in a single day. The workmen form
associations, sharing their labor and their gain.

The fat is then melted in large tubs, where it is exposed to the action
of steam. The oil flows through a funnel-shaped apparatus, and, finally,
through pipes into immense oak-wood reservoirs. There are three such
reservoirs connected by pipes, and let into the ground, so that the oil
from the first flows into the second, and then into the third, from whence,
through cocks, it passes into casks, which can be shipped as soon as
filled. Each one of these reservoirs has a diameter of 3 " sagenes," (21
feet,) a depth of 1 "sagene," (7 feet,) and can hold 4,S00 "pouds"
(172,000 pounds) of oil.

The oil thus extracted forms the first quality. The second quality is
obtained by melting the residue in caldrons, and by pressing it. The
color of this oil is dark-brown. Before the residue is put into the cal-
drons, (capable of holding 200 "pouds" (7,200 pounds) each, it is thrown
into a receptacle with an inclined bottom, and the whole mass is stirred
violently by means of wooden shovels. This is done in the sunlight, so
that the heat may help to melt the mass. This receptacle is joined
to the caldron by a large gutter, which is walled up in the furnace.
Through this gutter, the residue is led into the caldron, there to melt,
which done, the mass is taken out with dippers and cast into a box,
which is then pressed. By means of this last operation, all the remain-
ing oil contaiued in the residue is extracted.

The oil-factory of the Sapojnikow Brothers formerly manufactured
about 100,000 " pouds " (3,000,000 pounds) of seal-oil, which was sent
to Moscow, where it was chiefly used in leather-factories ; but during
the last fifteen years, this establishment has gone down considerably,
and other wealthy Astrachan merchants, among them Messrs. Vlasow,
Smoline, and Orekhow, have established several factories for making
the oil.

The skins of the seals are used for making knapsacks and for cover-
ing valises.

VI.— THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES.*

Bv A. I. Boeck and A. Feddersex.

Mr. A. Boeck, who for several years bad conducted scientific re-
searches for the Norwegian government in regard to the herring-fish-
eries, was invited, on his return from the districts of Nordland and
Troinso, in February, 1872, to deliver some lectures in Bergen on the
spring-herring fisheries. Although the season was far advanced, the
southern herring had not yet made its appearance, and fishermen and
salters were in great doubt as to what they should do. Boeck's lectures
were therefore received with special attention, and as they contain a
great deal of valuable information, we preseut here copious extracts
from them, following the account given in the "Bergcns Adrcsseavis, 1 '
(Bergen Advertiser,) and " Bergenposten," (Bergen Post,) for February,
referring our readers at the same time to an article by A. Boeck, u Ac-
count of the Herring on the Coast of Noricay and Bohusliin,"\ (a province
of Sweden,) published in the fifth annual volume of our journal, pp. 123,
et. seq. We also refer to A. Boeck's work u On the Herring and the Her-
ring -Fisheries, I especially on the Norwegian Spring-Herring."

The herring is found, in Europe, from &pitzbergen to the west coast
of France, and is caught in large numbers on the coasts of Scandinavia,
Great Britain, Ireland, Holland, and France. On the other side of the
Atlantic, they are caught from Greenland to the eastern coast of Amer-
ica. In all those places where herring are found in large quantities,
and where people have become rich through these fisheries, the number
caught has, at times, been exceedingly small, and for long periods the
herring have disappeared entirely. This has not only been the case on
the coast of Norwaj 7 , but also in Bohuslan, (western coast of Sweden,)
Scotland, Ireland, and France, and people have been reduced to want
in consequence of the failure of the fisheries.

In the present century, when science has made such rapid progress,
and has, in manifold ways, become tributary to the comforts of life, and
when many of the greatest inventions of modern times have sprung
from the quiet and unostentatious researches of scientists, it was be-

* DetNorske Sildefiske. Efter Referaterne af Stipendiat A. Boecks Foredrag i Bergen
red A. Feddersen; in Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Udgivet af H. V. Fiedler og Arthur Fed-
dersen. 7de Aargang. (Kjobenkavn. Jacob Erslers Boghandel. 1872.) pp. 1-40.
Translated from the Danish by O. Jacobson.

t Beretning ora Sildefisket ved den norske ogbohuslensko Kyst.

{ Oui Silden og Sildefiskerierne, navnlig om dot norsko Voarsildlisko.
7 F

98 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

lieved that important results in regard to the herring-fisheries might
also be secured by scientific investigation, and many problems be solved
which had hitherto been doubtful. It was questionable, however, how
far practical results could be hoped for, and how far the causes of the her-
ring's disappearance could be ascertained and means be found to prevent
it. Yarrell, the English scientist, lately deceased, said that the herring
was a whimsical fish, which had no definite place in wbbh it could be ex-
pected with certainty. The famous Danish ichthyologist Kroyer, who had
for some time made scientific researches iu this direction, in his great
work, "The Fish of Denmark ,"* makes use of these words : " How desir-
able it is to gain more insight into the natural history of fish is strik-
ingly illustrated by the herring, as many points iu its mode of living are
still unexplained, and many fabulous accounts are transmitted from one
generatiou to another." The zoologist Yan der Hoeven also dissuaded
Boeck from occupying himself with these studies, as they would be pro-
ductive neither of profit nor of honor.

Several scientists have, however, opened the way for such researches.
The French zoologists, Audouiu and Milne-Edwards, traveled for sev-
eral years on the coasts of France for the purpose of examiuing the
fisheries scientifically ; the only result of their researches, however,
being a volume published iu 1830 and containing chiefly statistics. The
investigations made in Bohusliin, (western coast of Sweden,) by Profes-
sor Nilsson, of the University of Lund, are of greater value. The her-
ring had disappeared from that coast iu 1S08, after having been exceed-
ingly plentiful for more than fifty years. Large sums of money had
been employed iu establishing salting-houses and oil-refineries, and the
government had specially favored emigration to the coast of Bohusliin,
Avhere the herring-fisheries for a long time formed a fruitful source of
income. No herring were found near the coast; the merchants were
idle; and fishermen and salters led a miserable life. Still, people hoped
year after year for the return of the herring, and rumors were current
that enormous quantities of fish were immediately outside the coast in
the so called " Stor rende," (Great Channel.) The government assisted
the fishermen, and 50,000 rigsdalers (about $25,000 gold) were spent iu
attempts to secure fish from this locality, (the " Stor rende.") Although
all these efforts failed, it was still hoped that the herring would return,
as scientists had expressed the opiuion that only unfavorable circum-
stances prevented their approach. The fish, however, did not return,
and the former extensive fisheries were almost entirely abandoned.
The local press zealously advocated new investigations, and Professor
Nilsson began iu Lund, in 1825, a series of researches. It is to be re-
gretted that Nilsson could not begin this labor until eighteen years after
the disappearance of the herring, and that he entered upon these inves-
tigations with his opinions firmly fixed. He, therefore, met with much
opposition. He renewed his investigations during the years 182S-32,

* Daninarks Fiske.

THE NORAVEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 99

and visited the Norwegian herring-fisheries, in order to compare them
with the Swedish. He endeavors to prove, in his reports, that the her-
ring does not come from the Polar Sea to the coasts of different coun-
tries, but, as the well-known zoologist Bloch has remarked, has its per-
manent place of abode near those coasts where it comes to spawn. He,
therefore, thought that the Botmsliin herring never left the Skagerak,
and bad nothing to do with the Norwegian spring-herring, which was a
totally different variety, and that the Bohuslan herring had, therefore,
not emigrated to Norway. On the other band, he at first thought,
although he was not quite certain about it, that it had been completely
exhausted by the fisheries. At a later date, he abandoned this opinion
and supposed that the herring had only been driven away from the
coast by the noise of singing and dancing in the fishing-huts, and
remained at the bottom of the ocean ; and, finally, he came to the con-
clusion that it was killed by the impurities of fish-oil which were thrown
into the sea. He was also of the opinion that the herring would return,
if the seines, by which all the young were caught, could be laid aside.
As his opinions did not meet with general favor, a committee was
appointed, consisting of Ccunt Bosen, Professor Nilssou, and others,
which traveled along the whole coast of Bohuslan from Gottenburg to
Stromstad, nnd made numerous inquiries among the fishermen of the dif-
ferent districts. Nilsson's reports, as well as the report of the commit-
tee, and two memorials regarding the same matter by Professors Sunde-
vall and Loven, who concurred in Nilsson's opinion, were printed and
distributed in large numbers. We shall have occasion, in the course of
this article, to refer to these reports and memorials.

The Dutch government commissioned Lieutenant Kraft to make exten-
sive observations during several years, on the temperature during the
season of the herring-fisheries, by means of which it was ascertained at
what degree of warmth the greatest quantity of fish was caught. He
then prepared a map showing where, at different times, the largest
quantity and the best quality of herring were caught. This map was
exhibited at the fishing-exposition held in Bergen in 18G5.

Observations have been made in England for some time by zoologists
and scientists, mostly for the purpose of ascertaining whether the sup-
position that the fishing-implements had anything to do in driving away
the herring was correct or not, and they finally arrived at the conclusion
that the great number of old laws which embarrassed the herring-fish-
eries ought to be rescinded.

In Denmark, Professor Kroyer has made a number of observations,
only some of which, however, have been published in his work "Msh of
Denmark."

Professor Miinter, at Greifswalde, (province of Pomerania, Prussia,}
has also made observations concerning the various species of Pomeraniau
herring, their food, and the temperature most favorable for spawning.

These are the most important practical and scientific investigation?

100 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of the herring-fisheries which had been made up to the yearlSGO, when
the Storting - , (the Norwegian parliament,) appropriated a sum for similar
investigations on the coasts of Norway. Besides these, two investiga-
tions of the fisheries have been commenced on a large scale, the one by
the imperial German government under the direction of Professor
Mobius, for which a very considerable sum has been appropriated, and
the other by the Government of the United States under the direction
of Prof. Spencer P. Baird, LL.D., who, with several younger scientists,
is to examine the fisheries along the entire coast of the United States,
for which purpose some Government steamers have been placed at his
disposal.

"When Mr. Boeck was commissioned to examine the Norwegian herring-
fisheries, he could, at first, only follow the same plan in his investiga-
tions as other scientists before him had done; but he soon found that
these investigations ought to be made on a very different scale, and in
other directions, because he discovered that there were other natural
phenomena which might influence the migrations of the herring. After
having made himself acquainted with these natural phenomena, his atten-
tion was naturally led to circumstances which had hitherto not been
considered of any importance. The essential point in all such investi-
gations is to gather as much material as possible in the shape of indis-
putable facts. As these facts could not properly be gathered in a hurried
manner, and as it was desirable at the same time to secure some result as
soon as possible, Boeck proposed to adopt a provisional theory adapted
to such facts as could be ascertained. He saw that two plans might be
followed : one was to examine the migrations of fish in relation to
meteorological changes, by exact historical data regarding the older
fisheries from 1807 to 1852, when the government inspection commenced
its reports; the other, to gather facts from old and experienced fisher-
men. Although the latter plan might seem to be of doubtful value, he
soon found that such experience was by no means to be despised. Fish-
ermen are more observant than many suppose. They think, see, and
hear a great deal, and although their opinions are sometimes very fan-
ciful, the true can readily be distinguished from the false, and so be
made useful. Both plans, however, require to be corrected by scientific
investigation. Boeck has adopted the following mode of procedure,
endeavoring to accomplish his purpose both by observations and by
historical researches :

1. To' make observations during the fishing-season on the currents
and the temperature of the sea, the nature and form of the bottom, the
migrations of the schools of herring, and the influence of these circum-
stances on the time of their approaching the spawning-places.

2. To collect the most accurate information possible on the migration
of the herring, and on the meteorological changes which seem to have
influenced it from its beginning, in 1807, until the government inspec-
tion commenced.

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 101

3. To endeavor to find out, by historical data, the migration of the
herring -fisheries at large ; how the mass of herring at one time ap-
proached one part of the coast of Norway, and then another ; or how
disappeared entirely ; and then to compare these facts with those gath-
ered from other couutries, and thus to ascertain if there be any connec-
tion between the different herring : fisheries in Norway and other coun-
tries ; and also to compare the fisheries of former times with those of
the present, in order to ascertain if any satisfactory results could be
reached with regard to their future condition.

In accordance with this plan, Boeck has, during his sojourn of five
years at the fishing-stations of Norway, made personal observations, and
has also collected material from archives and libraries. He was greatly
assisted in his observations by two citizens of Bergen, the consul Carl
Kouow, and the banker N. Nicolaysen, who permitted him to use two
collections of carefully kept diaries regarding the herring-fisheries from
the year 1835, which facts he partly supplemented by notes from Ben
bergenslce MerJeur, (the Bergen Mercury,) and from Stiftstidenden, (the
County Journal.) He finally obtained, through the firms of Kjellaud &
Son and Ploug & Suudt, in Stavanger, a series of observations made on
the fisheries previous to the year 1835, which he likewise supplemented
by a large amount of written and oral information derived from persons
iu Stavanger, Skudesnres, Kopervik, and Haugesund. From all this
material there may be compiled a more or less complete account of the
fisheries from 1808 down to 1852.

Boeck has draughted, on a large scale, a map of the southern coast
of Norway, from Sognefjord to Gottenburg, and the northern part of
Jutland. The depth of the sea along the coast is marked by lines in
accordance with the information which he had received. Another map,
on a much larger scale, embraces the coast from Espevser to Tuugenoes.
On this there are marked the channels and depths, together with sev-
eral fishing-banks, to within a mile of the outer coast, which are not
usually indicated on the coast maps, and which were carefully pointed
out to Boeck by an old fisherman, Henrik Roevar, as well as by other
fishermen from Syre and Utsire. The localities indicated on the map
last mentioned are the ones to which he devoted special attention. He
has chosen this locality, partly because at that time the fisheries were
particularly productive in those places, the northern fishery having
ouly just then begun to be of any importance, and the Sondmor fishery
being still in its infancy; and partly, because it has always been one of
the chief places for catching spring herring. He has also contiuued his
observations there in order to make them the more satisfactory.

When Boeck first went to the fishing-grounds, he determined to follow
the advice of the government inspector, which was to go out with the
fishing-boats, and also to frequently visit the stations for salting. A
fisherman, whose advice he followed, often spoke of putting the nets in
the channels, and he found on inquiry, and by observations with the

102 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sounding line, that these channels are valleys at the bottom of the sea,
running toward the coast in different directions. Having continued
these observations for some time, he was able to corroborate the fisher-
man's statement that at different times the herring follow certain chan-
nels when they approach the coast for the purpose of spawning. It
would require too much time to describe the location of these channels
in detail, and we hope that Boeck will, at some future day, publish
these maps. In one of his lectures he mentioned a circumstance which
fortunately was among the first to come under his observation, and
which showed conclusively that, during the spawning time, the herring
follow these channels; and this he found to be the case invariably. He
had made a great inany soundings in the channel, extending between
Eoser and Feed and stretching toward Hauskeskcer, and had placed a
chain of nets across it. A large number of fish were caught all along
this chain, while another chain, the greater part of whose nets stood on
the rocks, with only one end reaching the channel, only caught fish in
that portion which touched the channel. He also found it of the
utmost importance, for the success of the herring-fisheries, to ascertain
which channel the great school of herring follows when it comes in to
spawn ; for several times he was able to designate with certainty the
place where the fish would be on the following day, by knowing where
large numbers were caught the preceding day. This, however, he could
only do when storm or cold did not interfere with his calculations. He
also convinced himself that if several nets are set in such a channel
they do not interfere with each other, but that the herring push forward
along the channel over and into the nets.

Boeck finally drew attention to the so-called " flak," i. e., large level
places at the bottom of the sea covered with rough gravel, which iu
calm weather are the herring's favorite spawning places. He raised
with the dredge large lumps of roe and gravel intermixed. In these
places the largest number of herring is invariably caught.

The influence of wind on the fisheries was observed long ago, and the
Swedish zoologist Ekstrom, and after him Nilsson, attach some im-
portance to it; but iu estimating the information obtained from fisher-
men, they are not sure which wind is favorable for fishing, the one blow-
ing from the coast or the one blowing toward it. The Dutch zoologists
have not been able to discover that the direction of the wind has any
special influence on the fisheries, except that a violent gale precludes
all possibility of fishing. On the coast of Norway opinions are likewise
very much divided on this point, some maintaining one thing, others
another. By examining, however, all the annual observations made by
the government inspector and by himself, Boeck found, that when the
herring is out in the open sea a wind blowing toward the coast favors
its approach, while when the herring are near to the coast its formation
has to be taken into consideration. If, e. #., the herring occupy an area
like the one opposite the southern part of Karmo, between Syre and

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 103

Skude, and strong southwesterly gales rage for any length of time, they
are prevented from reaching their usual spawning places, and remain a
long time outside the channel for some more favorable opportunity. If,
however, the storm continues, the herring generally pass into that part
of the channel which, stretching by Skude, runs on into the sound of
Karm. Fishing may then be carried on up to Salkus and to the end of
the Forresfjord. Of this there are many instances as far back as 1815.
From the accounts of the government inspector, it will be seen that
this was the case in 1857, and most of us will recollect the great fish-
eries of 1803. A southeasterly wind on this coast will have the same
effect, but to a less degree. If the herring keep more toward the south
near the Hvidiug Islands and Roth, both strong southwest and north-
west winds will prevent their approach to these islands. In that case
the whole school passes by Tunge, and there may be good fishing
directly up to Stavanger, as was the case in 1825. Similar facts will
become apparent if we advance farther north and inquire into the like
circumstances.

If the coast is exposed to strong winds blowing toward it, the herring
do not approach it, and the fisheries, if they have commenced, are inter-
rupted. Thus, rich fisheries far in the Bommelfjord beyond Tittelsnres,
and even far beyond Nyleden, will be a consequence of continual storms,
when the herring have been previously outside of Sletten or south of
Espevser. Of this there are many instances. Hence it will be seen
that the point on which the question turns, is not whether the winds
blow toward or from the coast, but what kind of wind prevails at the
respective fishing-places, since a wind blowing toicard the coast may in
one place have the same effect as a wind blowing from the coast in
another.

The temperature of the air also exercises great influence on tbe fish-
eries ; and this influence has never been underrated, but has always
been taken into accouut, although certain phenomena observed in the
fisheries can not yet sufficiently be explained by it. Boeck drew atten-
tion to the influence of temperature in his first report of 18G1. It has
been observed from time immemorial, that the fisheries are not as
abundant in cold weather as when the bottom of the sea is disturbed by
southerly winds. This has been proved by the experience of several
centuries, but only recently have attempts been made to investigate
this whole matter thoroughly and scientifically. Even Cuvier and Val-
enciennes in their great work on fish, in which the herring is discussed
at much length, do not enter upon this question. Dutch scientists were
the first to devote more attention to temperature, by making a series
of observations, with the view of ascertaining during what degrees of
temperature the herring-fishery is most prosperous. They found that
more fish were caught at a temperature of from 12° to 14° Celsius, than
at any other time. The Dutch herring-boats are therefore always sup-
plied with a thermometer, which enables them to place the net at a

104 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHEPJES. .

proper depth. Professor Miiuter discovered also that the higher the
temperature of the water the deeper the herringkeep during the spawning-
time, for which reason the nets on the coasts of Pouierania are set deeper
in summer than in spring. Dming his stay on the west coast of Norway,
Boeck constantly noticed the temperature, and noted down a large number
of observations during different years. In his report for 1SG2 he showed
the influence of cold on the herring-fishery. In that year he examined
the temperature at different depths. The weather had been calm, but
a severe coid had prevailed for some time, by which the temperature of
the sea at a depth of 10 fathoms had been brought as low as li° or 2°
Reaumur, while at a depth of 30 fathoms it was from 3° to 4°. He no-
ticed that same year, while present at the rich herring-fisheries near
Rovser and Skaareholmene, that some fishing-implements, which were
placed at a depth of about 10 fathoms below the surface, and were held
there by means of buoys, caught but few fish ; while others, placed at
the bottom in a depth of from 50 to GO fathoms, caught a very large
number. Seine-fishing was also very unproductive during that year,
although the schools of herring came in in enormous numbers. The
same was the case in 18G4, and similar observations might be quoted
indefinitely. If we examine these accounts we find frequent references
to the fact that the cold prevented the herring from approaching. Thus
it was extraordinarily cold in 1855, lilfe wise iu 1800; and in 1853 the
eold was so severe that the bays and inlets on the outer coast were
frozen over, which happens but very rarely, and presupposes a long pe-
riod of very low temperature. The cold was so severe that the fisher-
men were obliged, after emptying their nets, to lay them in the water
to prevent their freezing quite stiff, and iu order that they might have
thern ready for use again in the evening. The herring -fishery was, not-
withstanding this, successful, although the herring for quite a longtime
remained out in the deep sea and would not approach the coast. A
great many instances might also be quoted from observations made in
former years and collected by Boeck. It will suffice to mention a few
years, such as 1825, 1826, 1828, 1829, 1836, 1840, 1841, and 1844. In sev-
eral of these vears the cold was so severe that nearlv all the bavs were
covered with ice, and iu some years even the Bay of Bergen was so
much obstructed that all communication was interrupted. Still the
fisheries were good, and iu some years even unusually so, although the
sea had grown cool at a far greater depth and to a greater degree than
during the preceding year ; for then the cold was not particularly se-
vere, and the temperature, according to the observation of the govern-
ment inspector, was 1° at a depth of 10 fathoms. Boeck thinks, there-
fore, that the failure of the fisheries the year before cannot at all be
ascribed to the cold. He found that in calm weather the herring seldom
approaches the coast except iu small numbers when chased by the had-
dock, while the chief fishery always commences when a southwesterly or
northwesterly wind has stirred up the sea and mingled the lower and

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 105

warmer water with the upper and colder. Of this, Boeck gives many
examples, partly from his own observations and partly from those of
the government inspector. It is important to keep this in mind when-
ever the influence of the cold is spoken of.

From all this it will be seen that neither the character of tbe bottom
of the sea, nor the direction or force of the wind, nor the temperature of
the air and sea by themselves, exercise an influence on the fisheries suffi-
ciently great to cause their cessation," but that these various influences
only modify the time and place of the fisheries. The schools of herring
that come in from the ocean, seek the coast notwithstanding these influ-
ences.

The question, '"' Where does the spring-herring keep itself, when it is
not uear the coast V ' has been discussed from the earliest times. Shortly
before the fisheries commence, the herring may be seen approaching the
coast, followed by whales, and the sea then frequently appears quite
green from the large masses of fish seen near the surface. After the
herring has spawned and gone out into the sea, it disappears. In very
early times it was supposed that the Polar Sea was the true home of the
herring. The Dutch fishermen on the Shetland Islands noticed that it
came from the north. It also approached the coasts of Scotland from
the north. The Irish saw the herring pass their coasts from north to
south, and the same was observed on the coasts of Norway. It is there-
fore not at all astonishing that its home was supposed to be in the north,
and that the Polar Sea, which, according to the strange fancies of those
times, hid so many wonders, was the place from which the herring emi-
grated every year. The English writer, Dodd, in a book entitled "Atlas
Maritimus et Commercialism* published in 1728, started the theory that
the herring emigrates from the Polar Sea. But this theory is brought
out in a clearer and more attractive manner in a work by Johann Ander-
son, burgomaster of Hamburg, and well known for his learning, entitled
*' .Wachrichten von Island, Grbnlandf 1 &c, Hamburg, 174G, {Account of Ice-
land, Greenland, <£c.,) which appeared in a Danish translation in the jear
1781. He first remarks that several well-known persons had seen her-
ring and the bones of herring lying on the rocks of the coast of Green-
land. He then shows that the whale, the seal, and the porpoise, whose
favorite food is the herring, have their home in those Arctic seas, and
that, therefore, the herring must be found there. Far up toward the
North Pole, under the broad, icy plain, which never melts, the herring
was supposed to live quietly, because neither whales, sharks, nor men
could pursue it there ; there it also spawned and increased in such num-
bers that the Polar Sea became too narrow for them, and thence colonies,
compelled by actual necessity, emigrated toward the south, just as bees
swarm in summer. When such a school of herring issues forth from its
icy home, it is immediately attacked by its enemies, who pursue it dur-

* See, also, Dodd (J. S.) Essay towards a Natural History of the Herring. Loudon*
1752.— Ed.

10G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISII AND FISHERIES.

iug its passage to the south, and finally drive it into the bays and inlets
where it is caught. During its passage southward, it dispatches two
flank divisions, the right flank toward the coast of Iceland, of whose
fate Anderson does not speak in his book, while he does state that the
great mass of the herring, when near the coast of Norway, divides into
two columns, one of which goes toward the coasts of Scotland and En-
gland, where it is for the greater part captured by the fishermen of those
countries ; while some are driven partly along the eastern coast of En-
gland, and partly along the coast of Ireland, till they finally meet in the
English Channel, where they are caught by the French fishermen. That
school, which, it was conjectured, passed toward Norway, continued its
journey along the coast of that country. Some pass through the sound
and belts into the Baltic, where the Swedes and Prussians are ready
to receive them ; another portion of the school follows the coasts of Den-
mark, Germauj', and Holland, while the remainder reach the Atlantic,
where they disappear.

This theory became so popular that it has been handed down from
one writer to another, even to our time, and has intrenched itself even
in text-books on natural history. It met, however, with some opposi-
tion, and Bloch, who published in 1782 his book entitled - ; Ockonomische
NaturgescMchte der Fische Deutschlands," {Economical Natural History
of the Fish of Germany,) a work very remarkable for its time, raises
many weighty objections to it. He first showed that the herring is not
so common in the northern countries as was generally supposed, and
that it was impossible for it to travel so many thousands of mdes in
the short period between spring and autumn. Besides, the herring is
found at all times of the year in the Baltic and on the coasts of Nor-
way, and the Dutch continue their herring-fisheries even throughout
the entire winter until spring. It would also be very remarkable if just
the smallest herring should make the longest journey far down to the
Baltic. But as Bloclfs books were not popular, being only intended
for scientists, his opinions did not become widely known. An Amer-
ican by the name of. Gilpin,* went even beyond Anderson in promul-
gating another fanciful migration theory. He showed that 'herring
were also caught in America, and that here it first approached the
coast of Florida, and then, passing along Virginia, went as far as New-
foundland, moving, therefore, from south to north, and thus differing
from its direction in Europe. The American herring must, therefore,
come from schools out of the English Channel ; and his theory was that
the herring, in the course of a year, described in his migration an ellipse
of not less than forty-seven degrees of latitude, crossing the Atlantic
twice a year, the first time to escape the strong heat in the south, and

* Gilpin, John, " Oil the Annual Passage of Herrings," Transactions Amer. Phil. Soc.,
II, (1786,) p. 236-239.

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 107

the second time the severe cold in the north.* Kroyer thinks that if there
wereauy probability in this theory, the herring might justly be compared
to the Wandering Jew, who travels unceasingly without finding rest.
This theory, however, has not found many advocates outside of Amer-
ica,t aud is of no value since it has been proved that the American her-
ring is a species different from ours.

Anderson's theory was violently attacked by Nilsson in 182G and 1828,
who, like Block, proved that the herring could not possible live deep
under the ice in the Polar Sea, and much less spawn, as the roe
would there miss the most essential conditions for its development, viz,
light aud warmth. Although the herring was seen to come from the
north, it need not necessarily come from the Polar Sea, as it could not
possibly travel the long distance of more than a thousand miles, as An-
derson maintained that it did. He showed, besides, that on the coasts
of Sweden there was found a great number of varieties, which never
leave that part of the sea where they are born, (such as the " Striim-
miug," which is found in the Gulf of Bothnia,) while farther toward the
south other varieties of the herring are found, those from the western
coast being easily distinguished from those of the southern. On the
coast of Norway, also, different species of herring are found, which
again differ from the Scotch and Dutch herring. Nilsson, therefore,
thought it beyond a doubt that the herring does not come from one
great common tribe, but that every race has its home outside that
coast where it goes to spawn; and that it has its regular dwelling-place
in the open sea near such coast. He thus thinks that the Gottenburg
herring, which came into the inlets of Bohuslau in such extraordinary
large numbers prior to the year 1808, aud of which, e. g., in the year 1870,
more than one and a half million tons were caught, (which, by the way,
was only a very insignificant portion of the whole mass of herring which
had gathered there,) has its permanent home in the Skagcrak, which is
neither very deep nor of very great extent. Ouvier and Valenciennes,
also, showed that on the northern coast of France, aud not far apart,
there were two such tribes of herring, each of which had its separate
home in certain basins of the open sea, and that these tribes never in-
termingled. Hunter is also able to show that there is on the coast of
Pomerania one tribe of herring which spawns in the autumn, and an-
other which spawns in the spring, differing greatly from each other,
although the basins of the sea near the coast where they live are
scarcely more than a mile apart. Another proof of the theory that
every race of herring has its special dwelling-place in the sea, which
it does not leave, except when it approaches the coast for the purpose

* This " theory " was the result of a confusion of two very different fishes under the
same name — Culjpca harengus and Pomolohus pscudoharengus — one of which is the true
sea-herring, and the other an anadromous species whose ascent of the rivers coincides
with the advancing temperature of the new year, and therefore with the latitude —
S. F. B.

t The only avowed advocate of the "theory" in America was the originator. — Ed.

108 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of spawning, is the fact that the kerriug is not able to swim very far,
since neither the structure of its muscles nor fins is adapted for this
purpose. Immediately outside the coast there are small banks on which
the fishermen catch cod and other fish, and from these banks the bot-
tom often shelves off with great abruptness to a depth of sea which in
some places reaches from four to five hundred fathoms, and which, in
the shape of a deep channel, varying in breadth from fifteen to twenty
miles, stretches from Soguefjord in a southerly direction along the coast
of Norway, making a sharp turn at Lindesnaes, and extending from that
point to the mouth of the bay of Ohristiauia. In some places its depth
is from four to five hundred fathoms, and deep channels branch of from
it toward the mouths of the great bays and inlets on the coast of Nor-
way. In the Skagerak this deep channel is much narrower, and reaches
its greatest depth in the neighborhood of Arendal, while higher banks
stretch along as far as the northern point of Jutland. It is found near
Fedge that, at a distance of twenty miles from land, the bottom of the
sea rises up to 70 fathoms, and immediately afterward to between GO
and 50, and all sailors know well how the North Sea rises toward the
coasts of England.

North of a line drawn from the mouth of the Sagnefjord to the Shet-
land Islands, the deep sea extends from the coasts of Norway as far as
Iceland and Greenland, and only north of Stat are banks again found
outside the coast. It will thus be seen that the herring may very well
live in that great and deep sea when they do not linger near the coast.
That they live there, may also be argued from the fact that Nilson has
found large quantities of herring in the stomachs of haddock caught out
in the deep sea. Boeck has likewise found proofs that the herring
lives in very deep water, when not near the coast. He has repeatedly
examined the stomachs of herring, and, though he fouud but few
remains of food, there were, among these, fragments of crustaceous ani-
mals living in the great deep. By means of the dredge he has caught
the animals at various depths, from the surface to a point three hundred
fathoms below it, and has specially examined those species which serve as
food for fish. Through investigations continued during several years,
he fouud that certain species of crustaceous animals (copcpods) always
keep at a certain depth, and iu such a manner that those living near
the surface are never found at a depth of fifty or sixty fathoms ; and
that those which live in the deep are never found near the surface. The
euchseta kind forms the favorite food of the spring herring, when it is
not near the coast of Norway ; and this is never found at a depth of
less than two or three hundred fathoms. The herring must, therefore,
in Boeck's opinion, live at that depth, which is not very far from the
coast. He was several times informed by fishermen, especially in 1801,
18G1, and 1SGG, that they, when at a distance from the coast, varying
between Hyg and twenty English miles, and in different places, such as
to the northwest of Utsire and Sartoro, had sailed through great masses

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 109

of herring, which, as they thought, had risen from the bottom of tbe
sea in order to move toward the coast. Some fishermen also showed
him herring which had been cast on deck by the waves. Boeck is dis-
posed to concur in Nilson's opinion that the herring never makes long
journeys, but that that school, which, during the time of the southern
herring-fishery seeks the coast of Norway, keeps out in the deep near
that coast. Cuvierand Valenciennes are of the same opinion, for they
have, as already mentioned, proved that on the northern coast of France,
two species of herring are found not very far aparr, which are easily
distinguished from each other in the Paris fish-market. These herring
are brought to Paris from two villages on the coast adjacent to each
other, and they are never mistaken for each other. Their abodes are
two different basins near the coast.

Bceck then proceeds to speak of tbe causes which impel the herring
to approach the shore. It is well known that it comes there to spawn ;
and daring the spring-fisheries the largest number caught are herring
about to spawn. The stomach of the herring is empty during this whole
period, so that it evidently cannot be its intention to seek food at that
time. Its desire to propagate dominates for the time being over all other
desires, and it seeks places against which it can press its abdomen, and
thus make the spawn flow more readily. • It does not at all avoid the
nets, but seems rather to seek them, of which fact interesting proofs may
frequently be seen, such as, that the herring will squeeze itself into the
meshes of the net if they are too small to receive it easily. The entire
herring-fishery of Norway is limited to catching the herring when about
to spawn, which is in marked contrast with the fact that in almost every
other country it is supposed that catching fish during the spawning sea-
son ruins the fishery. In every roe-herring which is caught CS,000 eggs
are preveuted from developing, aud it may easily be imagined that enor-
mous numbers of unborn fish are destroyed by the spriug-fisheries. If
the sea did not contain such incredible numbers of them, one years
fishery would entirely destroy the whole species. The empty herring
never approach the nets, and are caught only occasionally, since they no
longer feel the need of pressing against anything.

In the opinion of several scientists, such as Professors Sundevall and
Loven, every herring is instinctively led to returp to the place where it
was born, although it be only an island of the smallest dimensions ; and
that it seeks another place for spawning only when driven away. This
opinion is chiefly based on observations of the same habitin the salmon,
which always seeks the identical place of its birth.

A writer in the u 2Iorgenbladct, v (The Morning Journal,) some years
ago, endeavored to prove that those herring which, six years before,
were born in a certain spot, returned to it, and that the fishery would
always be abundant in the same place after the above-mentioned period,
and cited as evidence some extracts from the government inspectors'
accounts. This proved a very interesting subject for investigation to

110 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Boeck, and be determined to make it very thorough and extend it over
a great many localities. He soon arrived at another result, by using,
first, the accounts of the government inspectors ; and, secondly, the
very minute information regarding the fisheries which he bad collected
prior to 1852. By thus marking all the places where herring-fisheries
had been carried on, and by noting every year where the herring had
approached the coast, he found that there were so many exceptions to
these six-year periods, that in several places their number by far ex-
ceeded the rule ; and the same was the case in any period selected at
random from one to seven years. Boeck can, therefore, see no law of
nature in this, and thinks that the herring does not return to the places
from which it came with the same certainty as the salmon does. The
approach of the herring, in his opinion, depends on the three conditions
mentioued above, viz, the channels, the wind, and the temperature. The
age of the herring when it approaches the coast to spawn for the first
time, belongs to that line of investigations which Boeck has not been
able to complete. Nowhere, as yet, has this been accurately ascertained.
Some have maintained, but without being able to furnish proof, that
the age of the herring, when it spawns for the first time on the
coast, varies between one-half and seven years. Boeck is in doubt,
whether the herring when fully capable of spawning is exactly six years
of age; but he has likewise no means of establishing his own opinion
that it is only between three and four years old. He merely remarks
that too little attention has been given to the fact that the herring when
it spawns has by no means reached its full size, and he has found her-
ring eight inches long which contained roe and milk.

Boeck also spoke of the so-called "signs? which in earlier times were
closely observed, but to which, at present, little importance is attached.
In those early days fishermen thought that all the phenomena which
they observed in the sky and the sea must necessarily have some con-
nection with their most important occupation; and we find that there
were autumn, winter, and spring signs. Some of these signs for the
autumn and winter consisted in the color of the sea, the redness of the
sky, the kind of lower animals with which the sea swarmed, and even
the roaring of the whales, and the rising of the salmon in the mountain-
streams. The well-kuown Norwegian clergyman, Be v. 0. Hertzberg,
has, in the "Budstilcken" (the Messenger) for 1821, written an essay on
this subject, entitled "0» the Spring-herring and the Signs of its Coming."
At present, however, people have lost all trust in most of these signs,
and rely only on appearances furnished by the whale, by certain birds,
and by the codfish, which, in many respects, furnish important tokens
of the herring's approach. When the time of the herring fishery is near,
different kinds of sea-gulls gather in larger numbers than usual ; but it
is not until the herring comes near the shore and near the surface of the
water that these birds can find food among them, and thereby indicate,
with greater accuracy, the locality of the fish. The case is different

THE NOEWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. Ill

with the whale and the codfish, whose element is the sea, and who can
follow the herring far helow the surface. These therefore give more
trustworthy signs of the herring's whereabouts than the birds; but, in
pursuing the schools of herring, there is also a difference between the
whale and the codfish which it may be interesting to notice. The whale
can easily be distinguished, even when far out in the sea, as it is obliged
to come frequently to the surface for the purpose of breathing, while the
codfish always keeps below the surface, and can only be seen when caught.
Both of these, while following the "herring mountain," for the purpose
of obtaining food, may, however, furnish useful signs forjudging of the
probable condition of the herring fishery. The whale invariably keeps
outside the great schools of herring, along the edges, never attempting
to penetrate auy farther. It is, therefore, an auspicious sign for the
fishermen when they see whales in a wide circle, round some well-known
fishing-place. They then know that the herring are approaching the
shore in dense masses, and they may justly expect a rich harvest. In
the year 1862, Boeck saw whales, in a long and imposing line, stretch
from the northwest of Rovrer as far as Utsire, and on the following day
the fisheries commenced near Rovajr and along the entire coast. If,
on the other hand, the whales are seen to spread over a large area, or
in small numbers, it: is safe to predict that the herring will not approach
certain places in large masses, but that they will be scattered, and thus
the schools be smaller. If, after the fishery has been going on for some
time, the whales are seen near the coast in the spawning places, it is
absolutely certain that the herring are leaving the coast, although on
that day fishing may be very good. In the same year,! 1862, remarkable
examples of the truthfulness of these phenomena were witnessed. The
codfish does not exercise the same influence on the masses of herring
that the whale does. Being a very greedy fish of prey, it plunges into
the school of herring, scatters them, if possible, surrounds the fright-
ened fish on all sides, pursues them fiercely, and often drives them to-
ward the shore loug before the chief mass of the school reaches there.
The approach of such smaller scattered schools, before the fisheries
commence, are termed, by the Norwegian fishermen, "sejejag," (codfish-
chase.) When the school approaches the shore, the codfish is found
not only on its edge, but in the middle of it; and if codfish are caught
having herring in their stomachs, it is a sign that the herring fishery is
near at hand. Of the greediuess of the codfish, and its power to scatter
the herring-schools, amusing illustrations may frequently be seen in the
full seines. This sight is, however, more amusing to the spectator than
to the owner of the seine, as it frequently happens that the scared her-
ring press the seine down so heavily as to allow them to escape. Seine-
fishermen are, therefore, afraid of the codfish. If fche schools are already
scattered before coming near the shore, the codfish is found mixed with
the herring during the whole fishing season; and it is not a sign of

112 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

favorable fishing -when, in the beginning of the season, codfish are
caught with the herring.

The herring may also be observed spawning within the nets ; and,
when it is free, it spawns in inlets and on the large flat places at the
bottom of the sea, which are covered with rough gravel, (" flak,") where
the roe sometimes lies in such enormous quantities as to fill the dredge en-
tirely, when cast in such places. This roe does not, however, lie loose,
but is firmly pasted to the bottom by a peculiar glutinous substance
which hardens in the course of half an hour, and which, with the rough
gravel, forms large cakes. It may happen that violent storms disturb
the bottom to such a degree as to tear off the masses of roe, and Boeck
relates a very interesting case of this kind. One year such an enor-
mous mass of herring-roe was driven by storms up the Jteder Bay that
cart-loads of it were taken away to be used as a fertilizer for the fields,
and hogs also fed on it for many days. In these masses of roe the eggs
have a certain invariable position, with an opening in the shell of the
egg, and the so-called " micropyle" turned upward, so that the fructi-
fying male semen can enter easily. The male fish pour their milt (se-
men) over the masses of roe which have been deposited by the females,
and it is therefore evident that in their approach the females precede
the males. In the commencement of the fisheries more females will be
caught, and toward the end more males. This was the case near
Skaareholmene, and may be a fact of practical value. After there had
been very good fishing for some time, one day the greater part of the
herring brought to the salting-houses were found to be male fish. Boeck
was therefore of the opinion that the approach of the herring had
ceased. This was really the case, and it was not at all necessary to
explain this circumstance, as was attempted at the time, by a steamer
having scared away the herring by the noise of its machinery.

Boeck did not undertake to describe minutely the development of the
embryo in all its stages, although it forms a subject for exceedingly in-
teresting investigation, to observe how it is formed from the egg', how
the organs by degrees grow together ; how the heart begins to beat and
the blood to flow. But as all this could not throw any more light on
the main question, viz, " whether the spring fisheries are to disappear
from the southern fishing-places," Boeck passed over it very briefly.
He did say, however, that when the herring emerges from the egg it
differs so much in its shape from the grown herring that it resembles
rather an eel; and even after it is a month old its shape is not at all
like that of the mature herring. In fact, the difference between the
young and the old fish is even much greater than that existing between
different species of herring.

Boeck also referred- to a few species of herriug, concerning which
opinions have been divided, viz, the great herring and the spring her-
ring, lie exhibited a drawing of a great herring from Laugenoes,
and another of a large spring-herring from Brono. With regard to

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES- 113

the shape of the great herring, it will be found that the upper out-
line from the end of the head to the beginning of the back fin ^
curved, while in the spring-herring it is straight. Its greatest height
also is, in proportion to its length, more than that of the spring-herring;
and if two equally large specimens are compared, it will be seen that in
the great herring the back immediately in front of the back finis much
broader than that of the spring-herriDg, and that the outline of the
belly in the latter is less curved. Boeck has not been able, except in
these respects, to discover any difference, although he was told that,
according to popular opinion, there was a great difference between these
two kinds of herring. Several years ago he was offered an opportunity
in Haugesund to examine and compare both kinds with great minute-
ness. A merchant from Nordland brought a quantity of great herring
to Haugesund to be exported. The government officials demanded the
usual spring-herring tax on these fish, which the merchant refused to
pay, as they were not spring-herring, and as he had already paid tax
on them in Nordland. The government officials wished in this case that
Boeck would furnish some sure and easily marked characteristics by
which the great herring could be distinguished from the spring-herring.
He found this at the time to be impracticable, although he examined a
great number of both kinds. But when he heard that several persons
considered themselves capable of determining in what the difference
consisted, he had an interview with them, at which one said that one
important difference was, that the membrane of the belly is white in the
great herring, but black in the spring-herring. This, however, was
found to be Only partially the case in some pressed and salted great
herring, while with all the others not the least difference could be dis-
covered. Another said there was a difference in the scales, but the cause
of this was that the great herring, by a less careful treatment, were de-
prived of its scales, while they were found in the spring-herring. There
was therefore not a single point by means of which these two kinds of
herring could be absolutely distinguished, with the exception of the cir-
cumstances mentioned above, and these were due simply to the superior
fatness of the great herring. Some time after this, however, a charac-
istic was mentioned by which both kinds it was thought could easily be
discriminated. It was affirmed that the great herring was destitute, it
was said, of certain bones in the back, which the spring-herring had.
Boeck, on hearing this, thought it highly improbable, as the structural
forms of the different kinds of herring had been carefully examined, and
the conclusion reached that they are entirely the same in most kinds
inhabiting the northern hemisphere ; while only a few exceptions are
found in those of the southern hemisphere. The "procesus spiwsus
superior" is double in the herring, which is not the case, for example,
with the haddock. On the sides of this bone there are seen „ two fine
bones, and the argument turns on the question whether these are found or
not. If we examine, however, a great herring minutely, these bones

114 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

are found just as in the spring-herring; but they are frequently over-
looked, because the flesh of the great herring is much fatter and looser,
and in cutting through its back the knife will easily pass through these
soft bones; while in the spring-herring, whose flesh is less fat and there-
fore apparently coarser and harder, the knife will not pass through so
readily, but will glide along the bone when it meets it. In carefully
cutting open the flsh, the two bones above mentioned will easily be found
in both kinds.

Of all the assumed distinguishing marks, then, between the great
herring and the spring-herring, only the greater fatness of the former
remains. It might be thought that this fatness is caused by the better
food which the great herring finds at the greater depth of its abode ;
but this cannot be the sole reason. Indeed, there is another and more
important cause of this phenomenon. In seeing the great herring lying
in the boat after it has been caught, one is immediately struck by its
smooth and beautiful appearance ; while the spring-herring, under the
same circumstances, is frequently covered with a filthy slime, a mixture
of roe and milk, and in pressing the belly of a spring-herring a stream
either of roe or milk flows out, which is not at ail the case with the great
herring. In opening both, one finds that in the female spring-herring
the roe-bags are coarse-grained and soft ; while in the female great her-
ring they are fine-grained and hard. It might be supposed that this is
a specific difference between them, which, however, is not the case, since
it is only caused by the roe-bags being more developed in the spring-
herring than in the great herring. In taking the roe-bag of the spring-
herring, especially that of a salted one, as its structure can be more easily
distinguished, one will find, on opening it with a fine pin, that the roe-
bags are not what one would suppose them to be — bags filled with eggs —
but that their structure is more complicated. With the aid of the pin,
one will easily be able to lay open and follow up certain fine vessels in
which the eggs seem to lie, and this is actually the case. The whole roe-
bag consists of an infinite number of fine tubes, which, perhaps, can
best be compared to greatly-elongated fingered gloves lying exceedingly
close to each other and connected by the so-called "binding texure,'
which is sometimes hard and stiff and sometimes soft. Where, to con-
tinue the figure, the fingers of the glove would join that space which is
occupied by the hand, a channel leads the eggs out along the whole
length of the roe-bag, and its continuation is another channel which
opens in front of the dorsal fin. In the finger-shaped channels, the eggs
develop from small cells which gradually grow larger. In the great
herring, the egg-cells are very small, and the egg-tubes are connected
with each other by a thick layer of binding texture filled with fine blood-
vessels. In the spring-herring the egg-cells are more than four times
as large ; the egg-tubes are very thin and fine, and there is scarcely any
binding texture. In breaking the roe-bag of the great herring in the
middle, it seems to consist only of a somewhat brittle-grained mass ;

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 115

while in the spring-herring, it is softer and tougher. There is, therefore,
no other difference between the roe-bags of the great herring and those
of the spring-herriug, than that the roe-bag of the former is less de-
veloped than that of the latter. In the early part of the fisheries, the
roe-bag of the great herring is least developed", while toward the end, cer-
tainly in those caught near Selsovik, it is much more developed and
softer, and we even find herring among them which are ready to spawn.
The first herring is, on the other hand, much fatter than this last from
Selsovik, from which it is evident that the fatness decreases in propor-
tion as the sexual organs develop. When the herring comes in from
the sea in order to spawn, it, like the haddock, takes no food during the
spawning time, and must, therefore, secure the material which is neces-
sary for the development of the roe-bags from its own body ; it there-
fore grows thin in proportion as the sexual organs develop.

Boeck met with a beautiful illustration of this in a great herring from
Skarsfjord, six miles north of Tromso. Among the great herring which
he had occasion to examine there, he saw one that was much fatter than
the other, and which, on account of its size and beauty, he determined
to take home and preserve in alcohol, but he finally opened it to ascer-
tain the cause of its excessive fatness. He found that the herring was
a male, and that the right milt was well developed, while, on the left
side, only small traces of milt were found. He then observed that an
intestinal worm had taken up its abode in the left milt, and had hin-
dered its development. On the same side were found large stripes of
fat twisted around the digestive channels ; and as this herring had thus
not been able to develop its whole milt, it was not obliged to use all
the fat in its body, so that some of it lay on that side where there was
room for it. Hence it is clear that in this respect there is no difference
between the great herring and the spring-herring. He was told by old
seine-fishermen that during the first year of the spring-herring fisheries
this herring did not approach the coast in a condition ready for spawning,
but that it became so only toward the end of the fishery, and that then
the herring was much fatter than it is now. Perhaps there is a similar
change in store for the great-herring fisheries, so that after some years
the great herring will also come near the coast better prepared for spawn-
ing, and will consequently be less fat.

Boeck then gave his opinion on the probable future of the spring-
herring fisheries in the so-called southern fishing-places, where he had
made a number of observations. In what he said he did not wish to
assume the character of a prophet ; he would only give facts, both for
and against, and he would, as he had done before, leave it to each one
of his hearers to draw from these facts the conclusions that seemed to
him most correct. Four years ago, when the fishery was still good, he
had warned people not to put too much faith in its continued success,
and not to expend too large sums in the erection of new salting-houses,
or the extension of old ones. At that time his warnings were received

11G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

unfavorably, as the practical fishermen entertained different opinions,
and thought that scientific investigations were of no use as regards the
spring-herring fisheries. Many also thought that care should be taken
not to say anything which would alarm people in prosecuting their
labors. Boeck, nevertheless, deemed it his duty, first privately, and
tbeu publicly, in his work " On Hie Herring and the Herring-Fisheries," to
make known the results of his investigations, which he thought were of
great importance to the fishermen. If the spring-herring disappeared,
and his predictions thus became true, he deserved the thanks of all for
having given timely warning of the evil impending ; and if his advice
had been heeded, thousands of dollars might have been saved, which
otherwise must be lost in a trade that was doomed to disappear. People
ought not to rely too confidently on the spring-herring fishery as a con-
stant source of income. In examining the history of the fisheries, it
would be seen that at times they had been very productive, and then,
again, had dwindled down to almost nothing. The fisheries had been
abundant during the reigns of Hakon Adelsten and Olaf Trygvason ;
also, from 1217 to 1340, during which period the spring-herring fishery
was of such importance that the law of Magnus Lagaboter contains sev-
eral paragraphs in reference to them ; then again, from 1559 to 1572 ;
from 1640 to 1688 ; from 1698 to 1784; and finally our period, from 1807
till the present time. It will thus be seen that the herring can disap-
pear, and that the fisheries can decrease. But now comes the important
question, " What can be the cause of this?" Two classes of causes were
assigned. The mass of herring has either decreased by being caught in
too profuse a manner, by being devoured by fish of prey, or by being-
destroyed in some other manner, or else the schools of herring have wan-
dered to other places. Professor Nilsson seemed, in the beginning, favor-
able to the causes first named, but later, he has decided against them,
chiefly on the ground of better information. Government Inspector
Widegren, however, still clings to them. Boeck himself does not believe
that the mass of spring-herring has decreased, but thinks that they no
longer approach the shore.

Wherever the herring-fisheries have disappeared the fishermen have
been left in great want and the merchants have lost an important
source of income. In consequence of the cessation of the fisheries the
country has suffered directly and indirectly, and it is therefore not to
be wondered at that people in ail classes of society have thought over
the matter and have tried to discover the cause of the decay. Many
reasons were assigned, but none seemed to be plausible. What was
given as the cause of the herring's disappearance in one place was
found not to be the cause in another. Laws have thus been based on
very vague suppositions, and large sums have been expended for carry-
ing on the fishery according to new and hitherto unknown methods ;
such as by stationary nets in the deep sea, or by drag-nets, but all in
vain. The promises of learned men proved futile, and hope alone kept

. THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 117

ui) the courage of the fishermen and merchants. In earlier times, wheu
people did not seek the cause of various phenomena in nature, but
judged things by their appearances, it was thought that God had
blighted the herriug-fishery, because men had become ungrateful and
abused his gifts. Sometimes special causes were assigned for the
Divine wrath, and Absalon Pedersen Beyer thought that the herring-
fishery disappeared because Cristopher Walkendorpk had taken tithes
away from the clergy and used them for building purposes. Even in
our own days, (1835,) we see something similar to this, in the fact that
several members of the British Parliament declared in the House of
Commons that the herring had disappeared from a place on the coast
of Ireland because a priest had demanded tithes of his parishioners.
Casper Seatus tells us, that in the year 1830 the herring left Heligoland,
where at that time about two thousand people gained their living from
the fisheries, because some young men, in mere wantonness, had cruelly
abused a herring. In Stavanger, according to the account of Professor
Kroyer, the fishermen, in the year 1830, did not allow a wealthy citizen
to hold a masked ball in his own house, for they thought tbat this would
vex the Deity, and that as a punishment He would cause the herring
to leave the place.

When this superstitious belief yielded to the better suggestions of
the understanding, the decay of the herring-fisheries was sought for
in natural causes. In former times it was believed that noise could
drive the herring away, and, in 1580, to shoot on board ships was pro-
hibited at Bohuslan. This belief was common even in later daj'S. Thus
it was thought that the herring left Bohuslan in 1697 in consequence
of the discharge of the guns during a naval engagement, (in the war
between the Swedes and Danes ;) and the disappearance of the herring
from Dynekilur (a gulf on the coast of Sweden) was generally ascribed to
the guns of Tordcnskjold's (a Danish admiral) fleet. When the herring
returned in 1750 a law of 1756 fixed a penalty of 500 rigsdalers ($250
gold) for discharging a gun from any fortress on the coast, on men-of-
war, and on merchant-vessels during the period when the herring was
approaching; and as late as 1808 the thunder of guns (in the war
between Denmark and England) was considered the cause of the herring's
disappearance. Even now the herring fishermen do not like the noise
of the steamers, and in 1862 they were not permitted to cross the Silde-
fjord near Karmo. In Ramsdalen steamers were not considered so obnox-
ious, and during the great-herring fisheries no instance is on record of
the herring having been driven away by the constant passing and re-
passing of steamers. In Scotland careful observations have shown that
the herring has disappeared from bays which have never been touched
by a steamer, and have remained in some portions of the sea where
steamers pass daily. Professor Nilsson considers all noise detrimental
to the herring-fisheries, and to show how easily the herring can be
frightened, he relates that, in 1756, when the fisheries near Eikfjord

118 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

were very abundant, the herring left when eight men-of-war anchored
there, and this only because the ship-bells were rang every evening, all
shooting having been forbidden. He adds that the cause of the her-
ring's disappearance in 1808 was the constant noise in the salting-houses,
produced by the manufacture of barrels, and by other work, all the harbor
being full of ships and boats waiting for their cargoes of herring, the
whole coast and all the islands swarming with people of every age and
sex, who had gathered there for the sake of earning money. In the
evening there was music and dancing in the fishing-places, and therefore
Nilsson says it was no wonder that the herring left.

In Norway the herring does not seem to be so much disturbed by
noise, but other causes of its disappearance are given. In Flaekkefjord
people thought the cause of the herring's departure in 1S59 was the
strong glare of the List light-house. In other places, however, there was
no objection to light-houses ; while in Utsire it was even thought that
the fisheries began to be very abundant just about the time when the
light-houses were erected, the herring, as they supposed, being attracted
by the light. The opinion that light-houses have any influence on the
herring's appearance or disappearance has now been entirely abandoned.
Formerly many supposed that the bad odor spreading over the sea from
the burning of sea-weeds caused the herring to leave, and in many
places laws were demanded forbidding the act. The burners of sea-
weed, however, were of a different opinion, as well as the owners of
glass-houses, who used the burnt sea- weed. Professor Eathke was com-
missioned to examine this matter, and he found that the herring had
left places where sea-weeds had never been burned, and continued in
others where sea-weeds were burned constantly. It has also been said
that the cuttle-fish was a cause of the herring's disappearance, but
Boeck has never found a single cuttle-fish in the southern fisheries,
while he saw large numbers of them near Langences, and many instances
were related how the cuttle-fish loved to pursue the herring; but in no
instance could it be proved that it had ever driven away even the small-
est school.

At one time it was supposed that impurities at the bottom of the sea
had an influence on the herring- fisheries, and that the herring avoided
those places where many impurities were found, because they were unfa-
vorable to the development of the spawn. Such impurities were gen-
erally produced by employing imperfect fishing-implements, which left
greater or less masses of herring at the bottom, and also by various
kinds of refuse being thrown into the sea, which might make it unfit
for spawning. On the coast of Norway the former opinion was quite
prevalent, it being maintained that in seine-fishing great quantities of
dead herring were left in the water. Boeck, during his first stay at the
fishing-stations, had his attention directed to this. He also saw that
the nets with narrow meshes, which the fishermen have recently begun
to use, did not permit larger herring to put the whole head through the

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 119

meshes, but that only the front portion entered, so that the fish died at
last in endeavoring to push through the meshes, as it never moves back-
ward. When the net is hauled in, these larger herring fall off and re-
main at the bottom of the sea. He had several times examined such
places after the fishing was over, but had never found any large quan-
tity of dead herring at the bottom, even when he used the dredge after
particularly rich fishing-seasons. With the water-telescope he could
not penetrate to such a depth, but he thinks that the account of great
masses of herring lying there is very much exaggerated. On another
occasion he saw a large quantity of dead herring lying at the bottom of
the sea, but he felt convinced that this could not possibly influence the
fisheries, and experience has shown that he was right. When the cur-
rent is very violent, nets set in exposed places will be driven together
and become entangled, so that it is impossible to separate them. He
thus witnessed at Bjorkevser the sinking of such a mass of entangled
nets which had been cut off from the buoys, in order to save something.
It was important for him to examine the place where this was done, and
he went there about two months after this occurrence. The nets were
then so much decayed that only small pieces could be recovered, whilo
of the herring only bones and gristly parts were found. But the frag-
ments of the nets and herring were everywhere covered with carrion-
eating animals, which had gathered in great numbers. Many other ani-
mals were also found. When, later in the same year, he requested some
one to procure for him specimens of some of these animals, it was dis-
covered that there was not a trace left of nets, herring, or animals ; so
that about four months after the close of the fisheries the bottom was
quite clean again.

It is, therefore, evident that dead herring could not make the bottom
so impure that a year after it should be unfit for the herring to spawn
in ; and experience has also shown that this is not the case. On the
other hand, reports from Sweden, Scotland, and other countries, affirm
that seines may be very detrimental to the fisheries, by leaving a great
many dead herring at the bottom, and many instances of this are men-
tioned, such as the well-known fishery near Golten, where, after a great
many herring had died during one night, the fisheries were never again
successful. Boeck also discovered, several times after seine-fishing, by
examining the bottom with the water-telescope, a considerable number
of dead herring ; but he thinks that the injurious influence is very much
exaggerated. Where seine-fishing is carried on in open places the cur-
rent, sea-animals, &c, will very soon purify the bottom, and only where
very large masses of fish have died in deep and narrow inlets will some
remains be found the following year. The cause of the herring not re-
turning to such places might rather be occasioned by its irregular habits
than by dead fish. In order to adduce more substantial proof of this
he caused, according to the government inspector's account, to be marked
on a map all those places where seine-fishing had been carried on since
1853, and he found that in some there had been considerable seine-fish-

120 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ing year after year. It was, therefore, beyond a doubt that seine-fishing
was by no means so detrimental to the fisheries as was generally sup-
posed. That the seines brought up all the young herring, was entirely
unfounded, or, at any rate, but rarely the case ; and the small herring,
which are frequently caught toward the close of the fisheries, often con-
tain roe which has not been fully developed. He was informed at the
great-herring fisheries, and also saw for himself several localities, where
large masses of dead herring were said to be, at Selsovik, where, at the
bottom of the deep and narrow Gjeres inlet, between 10,000 and 15,000
tons were lying. The following year would show whether they had
decayed or not.

In Sweden, the disappearance of the herring had been chiefly attrib-
uted to refuse of fish -oil which had been throwu into the sea. This had
formed a theme of discussion as far back as the middle of the last cen-
tury, and Professor Xilson had clearly stated the reasons which favor
this opinion. It will be seen that with regard to Bohuslan, his opinion
has met with much opposition, while just as many instances are given
tending to show that the refuse of fish-oil has no such injurious results.
Boeck has not been able to find that these heaps of refuse are so near
each other that the herring could find no suitable spawning-places
between them. Even if the refuse of fish-oil were the cause of the her-
ring's departure, this could not have been the case in former times, when
the herring disappeared from Bohuslan, as at that time there were no oil-
refineries either in Norway or in the Liinfjord, (in the north of Jutland.)

Boeck's investigations therefore prove that all these causes, which have
been mentioned as being instrumental in driving the herring away at
different times from different places, either amount to nothing, or
have not held good in all cases. He endeavored himself to find causes
of the herring's disappearance which would better stand the test of
science, but for a long time sought in vain, till at last he thinks that,
through the study of history of the herring-fisheries, he has found reasons
that will hold good in all cases. During the first year of his stay at the
fishing-stations it occurred to him that the herring-fisheries, which formerly
had commenced much earlier in the season, sometimes even before
Christmas, had more recently beguu later in the year, and he was un-
able to find any special reasons for this. He also noticed that the herring-
fisheries were very unproductive near Skudesnres, where formerly they
had been very abundant, and that this could not be ascribed to storms
or to any other ordinary cause. In the following year the fisheries com-
menced still later, and in carefully examining this whole matter he found
that at the commencement of the fisheries in 1808 the herring approached
the coast in February, while during the following years it came earlier
every year, tillrecently it again came later and later in the season, until this
year it came at the end of February. In his work, " On the herring and her-
ring-fisheries,''- he has given the exact date for every year when the herring
approached the coast. From these dates it is seen that there is a certain
regularity in the time of the herring's approach, which is but slightly

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 121

modified by storm and cold. In examining the localities where the
herring fisheries are carried on, it will be seen that there is likewise a
certain regularity in them. From 1808 and 1819 Skudesnses was the
chief seat of the fisheries on the southern coast, while north of Karma
and Espevaer only few herring were caught, not counting, however, the
so-called Bergen fisheries from Selbjornfjord to Feio. From the year 1819
the herring also began to appear in large masses near the Hviding Islands,
Tananger, and Eoth, and in 1825 it passed south of Jeeder. From 1824 to
183S we notice a constant tendency in the herring to move south , the schools
in that direction increasing every year, so that rich fisheries began to spring
up, first near Egersund, then near Sagndal, Basgefjord, and Hoekkefjord,
while at the same time the fisheries near Skudesnses gradually grew
less abundant. From that time, the herring began again to retreat, and
soon disappeared completely south of the J seder, and more recently from
the Hviding Islands and Skudesna3s ; while, on the other hand, the
fisheries became very important near Bovser. During the last year the
fishing has shifted north of Espevser. If this regularity in the change
of time and place of the herring movements could only be proved with
regard to the southern spring-herring fisheries, it would be an impor-
tant fact, yet not important enough to allow us to deduce laws that
would be applicable in all cases. Boeck, however, found that such was
really the case. In examining the information scattered in merchants'
account-books, and letters which he was permitted to use in Stavanger,
he found that this same law applied in former as well as in later times,
and that there was the same regularity in the change of time and place
of the herring-fisheries. He has treated this subject at length in his
work, " On the herring and the herring-fisheries." Even in examining
the dates regarding the herring-fishery in the year 1575, given by
Absalon Pedersen Beyer, we find that the fisheries in the beginning of
that period commenced toward the end of February. This law is there-
fore found to apply to three different periods. The same phenomena
were observed not only here, but also in other places. This can be
shown most conclusively in the Bohuslen fisheries. Boeck found that
this regularity was very apparent there in the great fisheries which
closed in 1808. In 175G the fisheries commenced near Styrso and
Bifofjord, south of Gottenburg ; from there the herring went constantly
northward, and in 1773 herring were caught near Stroinstad, and, in
177S, near the Hval Islands. As regards the time of its appearance,
the herring in 1750 came in October, and from that time always a little
earlier, till 1702, when it came on the lGth of August; then again
gradually later. For example, in 1780, toward the end of October ;
1790, in the middle of November ; 1S00, about Christmas, and toward
the end of that period (about 180S) in February. The same was also
the case during the great fishing period, from 1556 to 1590. It will
thus be seen that the same law has held good for several centuries and
in-two different places.

In 1868, when the fisheries were still very abundant, Boeck thought

122 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

that he was fully justified in predicting that a change of the fisheries
was near at hand ; and although in the beginning he met with violent
opposition, he saw his predictions verified from year to year. He
finally mentioned some other facts. It has been a wide-spread opinion
that the herring-fisheries change alternately between the coast of Nor-
way and that of Bohusliin, and that the herring moved between these
two places, an opinion which was strengthened by the fact that when,
about 1808, the schools of herring left Bohusliin, they made their
appearance on the coast of Norway. But Nilsson had already shown
that the Bohuslen herring is a totally different species from the Nor-
wegian, and Boeck has proved conclusively that this difference has
existed from time immemorial. He has furthermore proved that these
two species also differ in the circumstance that they spawn at differ-
ent seasons of the year, the spring-herring spawning in the spring, and
the Bohusliiu herring in the autumn. He has also been able to prove
by historical researches that, from the very earliest times, both these
herring-fisheries have been carried on at the same season, and that
only during the last fishing period there was any difference in time.
Nor has he found any connection existing between the Norwegian,
Dutch, and Danish fisheries. Such a connection may possibly have
existed between the Bohusliin fishery and the Dutch-Scotch fisheries, as
some data seem to point in that direction.

If the herring should leave the coast of Norway, it will, in all prob-
ability, be obliged to seek the other channel, (" Bende,") which Boeck
has marked on his map. At a distance of from ten to fifteen miles from
the coast of Norway, large banks are found, that have their roots in the
North Sea, where the depth of water varies only between 70 and 50
fathoms, a depth which is very favorable to the development of the
spawn. Boeck thinks that if the herring disappears from the southern
coast of Norway, the fishermen and merchants will suffer in the begin-
ning, but not as much as in former times. The cod-fisheries which
have recently commenced, and which he always found to come after a
period of herring-fishing, would probably replace the herring-fisheries,
after people had become accustomed to them, and had supplied them-
selves with the necessary implements. Besides, since the intercourse
by steamers has become so common, and is even increasing, fishing-
places that were formerly considered too remote will be used just as
well as those which are near, and herring-fishing will assuredly be
carried on at all times on the long coast-line of Norway. The periods
during which the herring has disappeared have been neither as long
nor as exclusive as is generally supposed ; for although we know that
the herring left Skudesnres in 1784, it was caught near Bergen in 1787,
and returned there in 1S08, while it did not return to Skudesuses till
1808. Nor has it remained entirely away during the intervening period,
since in 1803 there might have been considerable fishing, if people had
been prepared for it, for during that year the herring approached the
shore in vast numbers.

VII -PRELIMINARY REPORT FOR 1873-74 ON THE HERRING
AND THE HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE WEST COAST OF
SWEDEN.

By Axel Vilhelm Ljungman.'

To the committee appointed to investigate the herring -fisheries an the west

coast of Siceden :

Having been informed, on the 3d Jane, last year, by the secretary of
the Eoyal Academy of Sciences, that, by a letter of His Majesty the
King, dated March the 28th, I had, at the suggestion of the Eoyal
Academy, been intrusted with the continued prosecution of the investi-
gations regarding the herring and the herring-fisheries on the west coast
of Sweden, I went to Stockholm in accordance with the wish of the
committee, as expressed by their letter of the 13th of June, and remained
there till the end of the month to gather all the necessary information
and make every necessary preparation.

In the course of the summer, I visited the most important fishing-
stations on the coast of Bohus-lan to secure information and to make
the necessary arrangements for investigating the fisheries which com-
mence in the autumn. I left for Stockholm on the 23d of September
to consult with the members of the committee, and to make myself
acquainted with the literature of the subject in the library of the Eoyal
Academy of Sciences. In consequence of sickness, I was compelled to
remain in Stockholm till near the end of October, so that I was pre-
vented from making any observations at the beginning of the fisheries.
During the months of November and December, I visited all the more
important fishing-stations on the central and northern coast, 2 where the
fishing for small herring was carried on.

As soon as I received information, about the beginning of the year,
that herring were coming in in great quantities, I went immediately to

vestkust anstallda undersokuingaraa. Af Axel Villi. Ljungrnan. (Tryckt sasom hands-
krift.) Upsala, Ed. Berliug, 1874. [8vo,2 p. 1.74, pp. 1 1.] Translated from the Swedish
by H. Jacobson. Original " printed as manuscript " by the author, [i. e., not for gen-
eral circulation,] Upsala, 1874.

2 By the southern coast, I understand the coast from Salofjord toTistlarne, (Reports on
Herring-Fisheries, p. 86 fr. 8 ;) by the central coast, the coast from Salofjord to Soteskar,
(counted to the northern coast by the old fishermen ; see Act Concerning Blubber-Refin-
eries, pp. 120, 134;) and by the northern coast, the coast from Soteskar to the boundary
of Norway. A somewhat different division of the coast has been made by Dubb, (Re-
ports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 34.)

124 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF TISH AND FISHERIES.

Gottenburg, where I had au excellent opportunity for observing the her.
ring-fishermen assembled together from all the neighboring coast. On
the 24th of January, I went to Stockholm to consult with the committee,
and to inform myself of the financial arrangements made for the obser-
vations. From the end of February till the beginning of June, I visited
various localities on the coast of Bohus-liin, to make observations and
gather whatever information I could.

I went to Stockholm again on the 7th of June, at the express desire of
the committee, to report on the progress and result of my observations.

Although I had some knowledge of the coast of Bohuslan and its
fisheries, much time was, nevertheless, lost by my being unacquainted
with many peculiar circumstances of importance for carrying on obser-
vations in the easiest and quickest manner. This knowledge can be
acquired only by several years' intercourse with the fishermen. All the
investigations, which were chiefly of a practical character, were on that
very account entirely new to me, and, therefore, necessarily retarded my
progress. My investigations were, moreover, impeded by the unusually
stormy weather during the autumn and winter, by sickness, and by want
of funds and apparatus. 1 Much time has also been consumed in col-
lecting all that has been said on the subject in the very rich herring-
literature, which, as far as possible, I endeavored to obtain.

I need scarcely say that the distrust and opposition with which the
investigations were met, not only by nearly the whole population en-
gaged in fishing, but even by those from whom assistance might reason-
ably have been expected, exercised a depressing influence, and will
continue to do so in the future, though not, perhaps, to so great an
extent. The rigid observance of section 22 of the fishing-law, and the
milder ordinance of July 19, 1872, regarding the use of nets with narrow
meshes, 2 increased the excited feelings of the coast-population, especially
in the beginning of the year, when the herring came in in great numbers.

The almost uninterrupted journeys, which were especially troublesome
in winter, on account of the apparatus which had to be carried along,
and the brief stay made in each place, did not permit any thorough
anatomical or microscopical observations, since these require a quieter
sojourn in a suitable place, where all the necessary apparatus may easily
be brought. As I did not consider it desirable and of practical use
for the advancement of science to report on the special investigations
which have been begun, but have not yet led to any definite result, the
cause of the incompleteness of this first report will easily be understood ;
while this incompleteness was still further enhanced by the fact that the
investigations were carried on uninterruptedly till the end of the year,
thus leaving but little time for putting my notes into suitable shape.

In conclusion, I must draw attention to the fact that, as the investi-
gations continue and more information is collected, much in this report,

1 See Chapter VIII.

■ New Reports on the Herring- Fisheries, p. 3, 58, 59.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 125

will probably have to be modified in future ones. I also hope tbat I
shall tben be able to make my report much more complete by means of
observations made on the coast of Norway, in the Kattegat, and in the
southern portion of the Baltic.

I. — ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HERRING AND SMALL-HERRING.

Even in olden times different races of herring were recognized, or at
least names were given to them designating different kinds, as the
idea of a variety or race was scarcely known to the traders and
fishermen, who by those different names only wished to distinguish one
article of trade from some other which was obtained at another place
or time, or was considered to have a different value.

Among our Scandinavian naturalists, Linne was the first who de-
scribed a kind of herring called in Swedish "Stromming," [a sort of
small-herring,] as a separate species, under the name of Clupea liarengus
/? membra s. 1

From Dr. P. DuWs observations on the herring -fishery of Bohus-Lan, 2
we learn that the Bohus-Lan fishermen, during the last great fishery,
distinguished the so-called " old" herring, (" gamla" sill,) as it is called
at present, as a " real sea-herring" ("rigtig hafssill") from the spring-
herring, which is peculiar to the coast, and belongs to it exclusively.
This last-mentioned herring was said to have a smaller head, to be
thicker and shorter, and to resemble the Kattegat herring. To judge
from an expression of 0. N. Loberg's, 3 the Norwegian herring-fishers
likewise make a distinction between the " sea-herring" (" Havsikl") and
the " fiord-herring," (" Fjordsteing.")

Professor Nilsson, in the year 1832, distinguished, besides the " Strom-
ming," a large number of different races of herring from the southern and
western coasts of Sweden and Norway, all of which, however, he
grouped under two heads, viz : sea-herring (Hafssill) and coast-herring,
(Skargardssill.) 4 This division, which was somewhat modified by him

1 Fauna Svecica. Ed. alt., p. 128.

2 Kgl. Vet. Akad. Handl. f. 1817, p. 35, 44.

8 Norges Fiskerier. Kristiania, 1864, p. 89, 90.

4 Prodronius ichthyologies Scandinavian, p. 23, 24. As this work is very scarce,
and as the quotation is of special importance, it is given in full :

Clupea liarengus Auctorurn. Svecis Sill.

Suh hoc nomine latent plures species, vel, si mavis, varietates locales constantes,
quae in duas formas aptius aheunt :

1-mo Forma oceanica (sea-herring) : capite, oculis et rictu minorihus ; orbita £- — ^
longit. corp.; ventralibus sub anteriori £ pinnae dorsalis ; distantia arostro ad piunas
pectorales intervallum ajquante ventralium et ani, seu initii pinna? analis :

1. oeresundica, Nostratibus Rabosill ( boundary-herring).

2. schelderensis, Nostratibus Kullasill.

3. mojalis, Nostratibus Grcissill (grass-herring).

4. oalmsica, Nostratibus Aflingssill I. Storsill (great-herring).

5. hiemalis, Nostratibus Norsk vintersill (Norwegian winter-herring).

6. autumnalis, Nostratibus, Norsk liostsill (Norwegian fall-herring).

126 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

subsequently, 1 seems to have beeu adopted by all tbe Swedish ichthy-
ologists, but has been questioned by Professor Kroycr, who says, in his
great work on the fish of Denmark, that he is not convinced of the
correctness of Professor Nilsso)i>s distinction of different species of
herring from the southern Baltic, the Kattegat, and Norway. 2

From the. western portion of the North Sea, Yarrcll has described two
analogous forms of herring as different species: Clupea leachii and
Clupea alba,* the latter of which, however, is only a herring in an earlier
stage of its development. 4

In the year 1833, in testimony before a committee of inquiry ordered
by His Majesty, the Bohus-liiu fishermen distinguished the following
kinds of herring: 1. The so-called old (" gamla") herring, (which for-
merly came in every year from the North Sea ; 2, the half-grown
" ToUsil," (so called from the Swedish word " lott," a kind of net,) found
both toward the end of the last fishing-period and later, and whichneither
propagated nor was to be seen in its full-grown state near the coast ;
and, 3, the "spring-herring," or " grass-herring," belonging to the coast,
and caught during the old fisheries as well as since. The distinctive
marks assign