iM /' A X Il THE 3 NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW: ^uartdg Journal of liolo0ial ^ima, EDITED BY G. BUSK, F.R.S., Sec. L.S. W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. E. CURREY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. REAY GREENE, A.B. T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. LUBBOCK, F.R.S., F.L.S. R. M'DONNELL, M.D., M.R.I.A. D. OLIVER, F.L.S. P. L. SCLATER, A.M., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S. WYVTLLE THOMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.E. E. P. WRIGHT, A.M., M.D., F.L.S. 1862. WILLIAMS AND NOEGATE, 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON ; AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. 1862. '.<._.. J^ '^ / CONTENTS OF VOL. II. No. v.— JANUAEY, 1862. REVIEWS. PAGE. St. Hilaire on the Systematic Position of Man. Histoire Natnrelle Gene- rale des Regnes Organiques, par M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire. Tome II. lepartie. 1856. ....... 1 The Collections of the Novara Expedition. Die Ausbeute der Ocster- reichischen Naturforscher an Saugethieren und Rei)tilien wahrend der Weltumsegelung Sr Majestat Fregatte Novara, Von Dr. L. J. Fitzinger 9 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 3. On the Cedars of Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria, and India. By J. D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S. (With three Plates) . . . .11 4. On the Morphology of the Female Flower of the Abietineje. By Pro- fessor Robert Caspary . . . . . . .19 5. On the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. By John Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S 26 6. New Researches respecting the Co-Existence of Man with the Great Fossil Mammals, regarded as Characteristic of the hitest Geological Period. By M. Edward Lartet . . . . .53 7. The Sumatran Elephant. By Prof H. Schlegel . . .72 8. Observations on some Australian and Feegeean Heterocyathi and their Parasitical Sipunculus. By John Denis Macdouald, R.N., F.R.S., Surgeon of H.M.S. " Icarus" . . . . . .78 9. On the Myology of the Orang-Utang. By William Selby Church, B.A., Lee's Reader in Anatomy, Christ Church, Oxford, (conti/nted) . 82 10. Anatomical Notes. By Professor Hyrtl of the University of Vienna, (contmned) . . . . . . . .95 11. Upon a non-Striped Muscle connected with the Orbital Pei-iosteum of Man and Mammals, and on the Musculus Keratocricoideus. By Wm. Turner, M.B. (Lond.) F.R.S. E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, Umversity of Edinburgh . . . , . .106 12. Note sur I'Encephale de I'Orang-outang, par J. L. C. Schroeder van der Kolk et W. Vrolik, (With Plate IV.) . . . .111 IV CONTENTS. MISCELLANEA. PAGE On Dimorphism in Pi-imula . . . . , .lis Botanical Information . . . . . . .118 Note on the Habits of Vipers . . . . . . .lis No. VI.— APEIL, 1862. REVIEWS. 13. The Writings of M. Fabre: — Observations sur les mcenrs des Cerceris. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome IV. Ser. 4. — Etude sur I'instinct et les Meta- morphoses des Sphegiens. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome VI. Ser. 4. — Memoire sur I'Hypermetamorphose et les mceurs des M^loides. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome VII. Ser. 4. — Eecherches sur I'Anatomie des Oranges Reproducteurs et sm- le Developpement des Myriapodes. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome III. Ser. 4. . . . . .121 14. A Histoiy of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea. By C. Spence Bate, Esq., F.E.S., E.L.S., and J. O. Westwood, Esq. M.A., E.L.S., Hope Pro- fessor of Zoology at Oxford. (J. Van Voorst.) — Recherches sur la Faune Littorale de Belgique. Crustaces. Par P. J. Van Beneden, Pro- fesseur a I'Universite Catholique de Louvain .... 130 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 15. On the Desirability of an English Translation of Aristotle's History of Animals. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. . . .136 16. The Atlantis Hypothesis in its botanical aspect. By Professor OHver . 149 17. On the Anatomy of the Short Sun-fish (Orthragoriscus mola). By John Cleland, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Glasgow . 170 ^ 18. On the Structure and Composition of the Integument of the Orthrago- riscus mola. By William Turner, M.B. (Lond.) F.R.S.E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Edinburgh (with Plates V, VI.) 185 )s BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 19. Periodicals (Additions to former Lists) . . . . , jgg 20. Zoological Bibliography : — General and Mixed Works on Zoology, Geo- graphical Distribution, &c. . . . • . .190 21. Vcrtebrata ••...... 194 22. Annulosa ........ 212 MISCELLANEA. 24. Note on the Habits of the Viper ...... 231 25, On Collecting and Preserving Specimens of Fishes and Reptiles . .233 CONTENTS. No. VII.— JULY, 1862. REVIEWS. PAGE. 25. On the two Forms, or Dimorphic Conditions, in the Species oi Primula, and on their remarkable Sexual Relations. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. 235 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 26. On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man, afforded by the Physical Stmctm-e of the Somme Valley. By John Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. (with Plate VII.) 244 27. On the Mammals, Birds, &c. of the Mackenzie River District. By Ber- nard Ross, Esq. ........ 269 28. Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the Crania of the Ancient Britons. Bv Joseph Barnard Davis, M.R.C.S. Engl. F.S.A. &c. . . ' 290 29. The Structure of the Stem in Dicotyledons; being References to the Literature of the Subject. By Professor Oliver, F.L.S. . . 298 30. Remarks on the Translation of the first chapter of Aristotle's History of Animals.. By John Scouler, M.D., F.L.S. . . . .329 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 31. Zoological. — Mollusca — Ccelenterata — Protozoa . . . 333 MISCELLANEA. 32. Note on the Co-existence of Man with the Dinomis in New Zealand . 343 Paithenogenesis in the Silk-worm Moth ..... 345 Botanical InfoiTaation ....... 346 Common Ling in Massachusetts ..... 346 No. VIII. -OCTOBER, 1862. REVIEWS. 33. 1. Bericht iiber die Zusammenkunft einiger Anthropologen, in September 1861, in Gottingen. Leipzig, 1861. — 2. Ziir Morphologic der Rassen- Schiidel. Von Dr. J. C. G. Luc^. Frankftu-t, 1861.— 3. The Mensu- ration of the Human Skull. By J. Aitkin Meigs, M.D. Philadelphia, 1861. — 4. Le Kephalographe. Nouvel Instrument destine a determiner la Figure et les Dimensions du Crane ou de la Tete Humaine. Par P. Harting. Utrecht, 1861.— 5. Essai sur les Defonnations Artificielles du Crane. Par. L. A. Gosse. Paris, 1855. — 6. Craniometrie of onder- zoek van den Menschelijken Schedel bij verschillende Volken, in Ver- gelijking met dien van den Orang Oetan. Door J. A. Kool. Amster- dam, 1852. — 7. Untersuchimgen iiber Schadelfonnen. Von Dr. Joseph Engel. Prague, 1851. — 8. Observations on the Human Crania con- tained in the Museum of the Army Medical Department, Fort Pitt, Chatham. Crania Britannica. By J. Thurnam and J. B, Davis, 1858- 62, (with Plate VIII.) . . . . . .347 VI COJCtENTS. PAGK. 34. Selecta Fungorum Carpologia, ea docuniema et iconcs ]iuiissiiuujn exlii-,_, bens qu£e vaiia fnictiium et seminuin genera in eodeni fiuigo simul aut vicissim adesse denionsti'ent. — Junctis stndiis edidcrunt Lnduviciis-Ke- natns Tulasne et Carolus Tulasne. Tomus primus. Eiysijihei. Vrx- mittuntur prolegomena de fungorum conditione naturali crescendi modo et propagatione. Parisiis, 1861. 4to. .... 361 35. On the various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are fertilized by Insects, and on the good eft'ects of Intercrossing. By Charles Darwin, M. A., F.R.S. With Illusti-ations . . .371 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 36. A Report on recent Researches into the Minute Anatomy of the SjDinal Cord. By W. B. Kesteven, F.R.C.S., (with Plates IX., X., XI.) . 377 37. On Distorted Human Skulls. By Professor Wyville Thomson . ,397 38. On the Germination of Reticulaiia umbrina, Fr. By Frederick Currey, M.A., F.R.S. Sec. L.S. . . . . . .406 39. Reply to the Remarks on the Translation of the First Chapter of Aris- totle's History of Animals. By the Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. 408 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 40. Botanical. — Phancrogamia ...... 416 41. Ciyptogamia ...... 470 MISCELLANEA. The Pile Dwellings on Lake Prasias . ..... 486 On the Genus Cynips ........ 486 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW: A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. I. — St. Hilaiee on the Systematic Position of Man. HiSTOIRE NaTURELLE GrENERALE DES EeONES OrGANIQTJES, par M. Isidore GreofFroy St. Hilaire. Tome II. le partie. 1856. The author of tliia elaborate work, wTiose comparatively early deatli lias so recently been deplored by the scientific world, devotes a long and carefully vsritten chapter to the consideration of the place and dignity of man in the universe — and more especially to the dis- cussion of the proposition, that mankind should be regarded as a distinct kingdom of nature, the " Regne humain," equal in rank to the mineral, the vegetable, or the animal kingdom — a proposal which, singularly enough, appears to have originated with the great scoffer, Voltaire. One might be disposed to distrust the sincerity of a vindication of the dignity of man from the author of "La Pucelle" — but no such suspicion can attach to the similar conclusion of a pains-taking zoologist, and as the chapter which M. St. Hilaire wrote upon this subject appeared in 1856 — in the pre-Darwiuian epoch in short — it may be instructive to consider both the data and the deductions of an author whose studies had been especially directed to the apes, and who pubHshed his conclusions before the din of recent battles arose. We therefore propose to give a brief summary of M. St. Hilaire's views, interpolating here and there, perhaps, a commentary of our own, but, for the most part, leaving the distinguished French Zoologist to speak for himself. After enumerating the opinions of the various authors who up to 1855 had ventured to assign to man his place in the Systema Naturae, M. St. Hilaire says : — " We have seen successive naturalists regarding Man as one of the kingdoms of nature ; as one of tlie principal divisions or sub-kingdoms (Embraucliemens) of N. H. R.--1862. B 22 EETIEWS. the animal kingdom; as one of its classes; as an order of the class Mammalia; as a sub-order; a family; a subfamily; a mere genus of Primates; nay, if we go back to Linnteus, as a species of a genus in which man does not stand alone ! The same group therefore has received all imaginable positions in our system of classifi- cation — a world apai't, according to some ; a unit imiong the myriads of animals, aceoriling to othei-s ! The measure of human contradictions is full and no room is Jeft for another." Oiir author is here, lio-werer, more epigi-ammatic than accurate; for the '' tableau des contradictious" was not really completed until an accomplished osteologist — proposing, in 1857, the system whose basis has been discussed and refitted in earlier niunbers of this Eenew — seized upon the one vacant niche and proposed to make of " Homo" a sub-class. But M. St. Hilaire's remarks upon the estabhshment of the order Bimana by Blumenbach, and its adoption by Cuvier, apply "with redoubled force to this last of all possible innovations : — " And how could this di-\-ision stand, repudiated as it was by the anthropoloo-ists in the name of the moral and intellectual supremacy of man ? and by the zoolo xvi. f. L. t Organogenie, t. xxxi. f. 39. § 1. c. t. xxix. f. 31, 37. II Organogenie, p. 701, et scq. 24 OEIGIKAL ARTICLES. other. Tliis I have noticed in Berteroa ineana and Thlaspi arvensis^ in whose ovnles the lower part of the cylindrical nucleus is thicker than the ujiper, and the two integuments arise seemingly both at once from the lower thickened part, at one time all round and at the same height, at another time unilaterally. As in these cases, true ovule-coats are developed on one side first, and not equally all round, it does not seem unfair to infer the possibility of their appearance in two distinct places or by two gibbi. The alternation of the two lips of the o\T,ile-eoat of Taxus, with the two uppermost bracts, may be understood to depend on the existence of more ample room for de- velopment on the two sides where there are no bracts, than on the other two, where the bracts come in contact with the ovule. It is well known, that organs increase most in size and vigour in those parts which are free and not interfered with by other organs, while they are weaker and smaller, where they are pressed on by neighbouring organs and deprived of nutriment. In the Abietineae this may be th& cause of the bilobation of the ovule-coat, as the two teeth in. Ahies excelsa, for instance, are on those sides of the ovule wliich are not pressed on either by the axis or the scale. The second pai't of Baillon's proposition, regarding the flowers of Conifers, is that they always arise from the axis and never from a leaf or bract, or rather cai-pel. This is sho^^Ti to be erroneous as to Abietinefe, at least by the monstrous larch described above. It is- also excellently refuted by Baillon and Payer's own observations on Pimis resinosa. As described by Baillon, the scales of Pinus pssinosa are develoi)ed in the following manner. The scale appears first as a small, dorsally compressed, broad boss in the axil of the bract. From the first boss sj)ring three others, one central and two lateral. The lateral bosses become broader, assume the form of auricles, cohere externally, and, increasing mainly in width, are gradually converted into an obliquely ascending lamina, the scale itself, which bears a little above the middle in the median line, the subcentral boss, " the organic apex of the axis," which axis produces no more appendages, increases very little in size, and in the adult state, presents the forn> of a hook bent inwards and downwards. On the upper surface of the lateral -wings, towards their lower margin, which is turned towards the primary axis, the ovules are, according to BaiUon, produced at a later period. From this description it is evident that three distinct organs, all differing in period of origin, can be distinguished, each of which i» developed from that immediately preceding it. 1. The axis which originates in the axil of the bract. 2. The ear-shaped organs, which spring laterally from this axis, and are called by Baillon the two lateral lobes. These ascend obliquely and form the greater part of the scale, but are so situated with respect to the minute axis, as manifestly to exhibit the character of appendicular organs. They form two nearly i-ight angles Avith the ascending axis, and spread out laterally and almoot horizontally,. CASPARY ON TnE MORPHOLOGY OF THE ABIETINEJ3. 25 HO that no one who has learned even the elements of morphological botany, can help recognising them as leaves, and as the primary and only leaves prodnced on the evanescent axis. 3. From the two lateral organs spring those third in order, namely, the ovules. Nowit is certainly wonderful, but it is not the less true, that Baillon and Payer, failing to distingidsh the second organs (the lateral leaves) from the first, though Baillon's description is sufficiently accurate, have confounded both together, and considered them to be a single organ, called by Payer a flattened form of the peduncle ; thus rashly following Schleiden, (who, more than twenty years before fell into the same mistake, of describing the axis and its primordial leaves as a simple axis), and Mirbel,* who 46 years before confounded these three very distinct kinds of organs under the common name of peduncle. Payer further says,t that " this flattened form of peduncle does not surprise those who are aware of its existence in the branches of se ^ eral plants, such as Suscus, X^IopJiyJI a, Phyllocladus, &c." No one, however, but a tjro in morphology, would confound the scale of Pinus resinosa, on whose upper surface, almost in its middle, the growing point rises as the hooked apex of an evanescent axis, utterly distinct both in position and direction, from the morphological apex of the lamina of the proper scale, with the flattened branches of Puscus, &c., whose withered growing point occiipies the very apex of the lamina, and in which no trace of appendicular organs is found below the growing point. Baillon, in a somewhat impressive manner observes, after stating some opinions of others on the structure of the flowers of Conifers, that " the new modes of observation afibrded by the study of organogeny, may with propriety be applied to the verification of these opinions." M. Baillon may learn, from the mistakes into which he has been led by the employment of a method which he and Payer alone imagine to be new, that the different grades of evolution of an organ, caunot be understood -vvdthout an accurate knowledge of the nature of the axis and its appendages, and of the relations which exist between them. M. Baillon, however, hardly knows the elements of morphology. How, for instance, does it happen, that, at the present day, he uses the term alternate,^ which was thus applied a century ago, to describe the arrangement of the bracts of the female flowers of Conifers ? Dr. Lindley,§ who considers the scales of pine cones to be carpels, (that is, leaves), refers to a cone-like gall oi Pinus ahies, figm-ed by Iiichard,|| which he mistakes for a cone, and in which he regards the scales as being changed into the form of the acicular leaves of Pinus ahies. Baillon has been led by Lindley into the same mistake, of regarding this gall as a cone, and only differs from Lindley, so far, that he thinks it is not the scales but the bracts which are changed * Elemens de physiol, vegetale, 1815, i. p. 347. f In Baillon's paper, p. 20. t 1. c. p. 6. § Veg. Kingd. p. 227. |i Mem. t. xii. 26 OEIGnfAL ARTICLES. into leaves.* Had Baillon read the passage in Eieliard, to wliicK he refers, he would have seen that Richard correctly regarded the gall as a leafy branch, changed by the attacks of some insect into a false cone. Degeei't describes the insect by which these galls are made, {Chermes o&ie^2>, Linn.), and figures it and its gall. J He says, " those who have no accurate botanical knowledge, may readily mistake the galls for fir-cones and fruit." Kaltenbach§ says, in like manner, "that these galls closely resemble fir-cones, and may readily be confounded with them by ignorant people." || From the observations given above, it is certain that the flowers of AbietineaB, consist of naked ovules rising from a carpel, and not of pistils springing from an axis. It has been almost universally acknowledged by authors, from the time of Richard down to that of Baillon,^ that the flowers of Conifers and Cycads, are almost uniform in structure, following the same laws, with very trifling difierences. It appears, therefore, probable that the ovules of all Conifers, Taxiis included, are borne on carpels and not on the axis, though at first sight this appears incredible. I shall return to this subject elsewhere. V. — Osr THE Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzeeland, By John Lubbock, Esq., F.E.S. Archeology forms the link between Geology and History — the past and the present. If in its more recent portions it is scarcely distin- guishable from History, yet when we pass back to its commencement, we find ourselves to have imperceptibly glided into the domain of Geology, without noticing any boundary to sejDarate the one from the other. The beginning of Archseology being, in fact, but the end of Geology, it is not surprising that they should, in the course of their development, have presented some remarkable analogies. M. Morlot has well pointed these out in his " Le^on d'ouverture d'un cours sur la haute antiquite, fait a I'Academie de Lausanne." Even, indeed, as the remains of extinct animals were at first sup- posed to be few and far between, whereas, in fact, the surface of the earth is made up of the dust and skeletons of our predecessors, so the relics of man, long looked upon as rare and exceptional in their occurrence, are gradually presenting themselves in unexpected pro- fusion. Loth, however, to distrust the existing chronology, our antiquaries long referred all the most beautiful and well-made wea- pons to the Romans, just as all fossils were attributed to the action of the Deluge. Passing on, then, with a graceful compliment to * 1. c. p. 1 1. \ Geschichte von Insckten, deutsch von Gbtze, iii. p. 66, et seq. X T. viii. f. 1 — 29. § Monographic dcr Familie der Pflanzenlause, p. 202. II I may further refer, for information about these galls and the insect which produces thein, to Burmcister, Handbuch der Entomologie, ii. 1. abtheil, p. 90, and Koch, die Pllanzcnlause (aphider), p. .317, where the insect is well figrnxd at f. 387 and 388. ^ 1. c. p. 11. LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 27 two of our most eminent contemporaries, M. Morlot points out that as Lyell, the reformer of Zoology, by studying the changes now taking place on the earth's surface, has explained the results which Greology brings before us, and thus arguing from the known to the unknown, has used the Present as a key to unlock the Past ; so M. Thomsen, by collectiug the implements and recording the habits of existing savages, has thrown much light xipon the manners and cus- toms of ancient times. Fully recognising the imperfection of the re- cord in the one case as well as ia the other, we must guard ourselves against any hasty conclusions and generalisations, but it seems now to be well established that a considerable elongation of the received chronology is required in Arch&eology as decidedly, though not of course to such an extent, as in Greology. Perhaps, also, we may regard it as, to say the least, highly probable, that in Northern Em'ope there have been three great epochs in the history of man — primary, secondary, and tertiary — the first of Stone, the second of Bronze,* and the third of Iron. This conclusion, which we owe in the first instance to the Northern and especially to the Danish Archaeologists, has been much strengthened by the recent researches in the lakes of Switzerland. It is however probable, as was mentioned in our last number, that the Stone period will require much sub-division. In all classi- fications we are apt, at first, to take the apparent, for the real dimen- sions of the more distant portions, and it is only as we obtain a closer acquaintance with them, that we discover their real propor- tions. Thus, it would appear, that the Stone age must be divided into at least two periods ; that of the drift on the one hand, and on the other hand, that to which the Danish Kjokkenmoddings and the Swiss Lake Habitations appear to belong. These Lake-dwellings or " Pfahlbauten," — a term whose nearest English equivalent is " Pile-works" — were made known to us in the following manner. In consequence of the extraordinary dryness and coldness of the weather during the winter months of 1853 and 1854, the rivers of Switzerland did not receive their usual supplies, and the water in the lakes fell much below its ordinary level, so that in some places a broad strand was left uncovered along the margin, while in others shallow banks were converted into islands. Tlie water level of this season was, indeed, the lowest upon record. Tlie lowest level marked on the so- called stone of Stafa was that of 1674, but in 1854 the water sank a foot lower. These unusual conditions, though very imfavourable to navigation, enabled the Swiss Archaeologists to make the important discoveries which we are about to bring before our readers. * In a grave at Mare Hill in Staffordshire, Mr. Carrington found " a piece of " lead, having the appearance of wire, which subsequent researches prove to have " been accidentally fused from metalliferous gravel present upon the spot." May not copper have been first obtained from some bright piece of ore, used as an orna- ment, and burnt with its wearer ? The coincidence of a knowledge of metal with the practice of burning the dead is at least significant. 28 OEIGrS'AL AETICIES. M. Aeppli of Meilen, on the Lake of Zuricli, appears to Kave been tlie first to observe, in the bed of the lake, certain indications of human activity, ^hich he jnstly supposed might throw some light on the history and condition of the earliest inhabitants of tiie Swiss valleys. In a small bay between Ober Meilen and Dollikon, the inhabitants took advantage of the lowness of the water to increase their gardens, by building a wall along the new water-line, and slightly raising the level of the piece thus reclaimed, by mud dredged from the lake. In the course of this dredging they found great numbers of piles, of deer-horns, and also some implements. The re- searches at this place conducted and described by Dr. F. Keller, have been followed by similar investigations in other lakes, and have proved that the early inhabitants of Switzerland consti'ucted some, at least, of their dwellings above the surface of the water, as is done in the present day by savages in various countries, as for instance the Papons of Xew Guinea, whose huts, circular or square in form, are grouped on wooden platforms, elevated a few feet above the level of the water, supported by numerous piles driven into the mud, and connected with the land by a narrow bridge. This method of construction, indications of which are found in various parts of Europe, was especially mentioned by Herodotus,* who describes the Pceonians of Lake Prasias, in Thrace, as li\'ing in cabins situated on a platlbrm, supported above the water by great piles. Each cabin had a trap-door opening on to the lake, and the whole settlement communicated with the main land by a bridge. The Swiss " PfaJilhaufen,''' or lake habitations, have been described by M. Keller, in three memoirs presented to the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, in 1S51, 1S5S, and 1860, and by M. Troyon, in a special work, " Sur les Habitation Lacustres," 1860, in which the author gives a general account of what has been done in Switzerland, and compares the results obtained in his native land, with the lake- dwellings of other coimtries and times. The discoveries in Lake Moosseedorf have been described in a special paper by MM. Jahn and Uhlmann (Die Pfahlbaualterthumer von Moosseedorf. Bern, 1857.) ; and we owe to M. Eiitimeyer two works on the animal remains from the Pfahlbauten, the first " IJntersuchimg der Thierreste aus den PfaUbauten der Schweiz," published by the Antiquarian Society of Zmich, in 1860 ; and still more recently a larger work — " Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz." Collections of objects fi*om these localities have also been made by many Swiss Archasologists. The Flora has been studied by M. Heer, whose results are con- tained in the last memoir published by M, Keller. Nor must we omit to mention M. Morlot's short paper in the " Bulletin de la Societe Yau- doise," and his more recent " LeQon d'Ouverture d'un cours sur la haute Antiquite fait a I'Academie de Lausanne." From the conclusion of this lecture, indeed, I must express my dissent : not that I would • Her. Book V. ch. 16, LUBBOCK OX THE A^'CLEaTT T.^KT. HABITATIONS OF S-WTTZEELANT). 29 undervalue ^vliat M. Morlot calls the Practical Utility of Geology, nor that I am less sanguine as to the fature advantages of Arcliseology. Science, however, is like virtue, its o^vn reward, and the improvement of the mind must be regarded as the highest object of study. How- ever this may be, M. Morlot is, to use his own metaphor, labouring earnestly in the vineyard, and is improving the soil, though, as in the old fable, it may be in the false hopes of finding a concealed treasure. The Swiss Archaeologists have, indeed, made the most of a golden op- portunity. Not only in Lake Zurich, but also in Lakes Constance, G-eneva, Xeufehatel,'^ Bieime, Morat, Sempach, in fact in most of the large Swiss lakes, as well as in several of the smaller ones (Likwyl, Pfaffikon, Moosseedorf, Luissel), similar lake-habitations have been discovered. In the larger lakes, indeed, not one, but many of these settlements existed ; thus, M. Keller mentions, in Lake Bienue, eleven; in Lake Xeufchatel, twenty-six; in the Lake of Greneva, twenty-four ; in that of Constance, sixteen ; and many more, doubt- less, remain to be discovered. Tlie dwellings of the Grauls are described as having been circular huts, built of wood and lined with mud. The huts of the Pileworks were probably of a similar nature. This supposition is not a mere hypothesis, but is confirmed by the preservation of pieces of the clay used for the lining. Their preservation is evidently due to the building having been destroyed by fibre, which has hardened the clay and enabled it to resist the dissolving action of the water. These frag- ments bear, on one side, the marks of interlaced branches, while on the other, which apparently formed the iiuier wall of the cabin, they are qvdte smooth. Some of those which have been found at Wangen are so large and so regular that the Swiss Archa?ologists feel justified in concluding that the cabins were circular, and from ten to fifteen feet in diameter. Though, therefore, the architecture of this period was very simple, still the weight to be sustained on the wooden platforms must have been considerable, and their construc- tion, which must have required no small labotir,* indicates a con- siderable popvdation. It would, indeed, be most interesting if we coidd construct a retrospective census for these eai'ly periods, and M. Troyon has made an attempt to do so, though the results must, naturally, be somewhat vague. The settlement at Merges, which is one of the larirest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1200 feet long and 150 broad, which would give a suiface of 180,000 square feet. Taking the cabins as being 15 feet in diameter, and supposing that they occupied half the siuiace, leaving the rest for gangways, we may esti- mate the number of cabins at 311, and if we suppose that, on an average, each was inhabited by four persons, we shall have, for the whole, a population of 1244. Starting from the same data, we should obtain for the Lake of Neufchatel, a population of about 5000. Alto- * '"Increasing density of population is equivalent to increasing facility of produc- tion." Bastiat, Hannonies of Political (Economy, p. 12. 30 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES. getter, 68 villages, belonging to tlie Bronze xlge, have been discovered in Western Switzei'land, and by the same process of reasoning tliey may be supposed to have contained 42,500 persons ; while for the preceding epoch, the population may, in the same manner, be esti- mated at 31,875. Por a moment it may surprise us that a people so uncivilised should have constructed their dwellings with immense labour on the water, when it would have been so much more easy to have built them on dry land. The first settlers in Switzerland, however, had to contend with the Boar, the "Wolf, the Bear, and the TJrus ; and sub- sequently, when the population increased, and disputes arose, the lake habitations, no doubt, acted as a fortification, and protected man from man, as they had before preserved him from wild beasts. Switzerland is not, by any means, the only country in which lake dwellings have been used as fortresses. In Ireland, a number of more or less artificial islands, called " Crannoges,"* are known his- torically, to have been used as strongholds by the petty chiefs. They are composed of earth and stones, strengthened by numerous piles, and have supplied the Irish Archaeologists with numerous weapons and bones. From the Crannoge at Dunshauglin, indeed, more than 150 cart-loads of bones were obtained, and were used as manure ! These lake dwellings of Ireland, however, come down to a much later period than those of Switzerland, and are frequently mentioned in early history. Thus, according to Shirley, " One Thomas Phelliplace, " in his answer to an inquiry from the Government, as to what castles " or forts O'Neil hath, and of what strength they be, states (May 18, " 1567) : ' For castles, I think it be not unknown unto your honors, " he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the *' raising of the strongest castles of all his countreys, and that fortifi- " cation that he only dependeth upon is in sartin ffresliwater loghes " in his country, which from the sea there come neither ship nor " boat to approach them : it is thought that there in the said forti- " fied islands lyeth all his plate, which is much, and money, prisoners " and gages : which islands, hath in wars to fore been attempted, and " now of late again by the Lord Deputy there. Sir Harry Sydney, " which for want of means for safe conducts upon the water it hath " not prevailed.' " Again, the map of the escheated territories, made for the Govern- ment, A.D. 1591, by Francis Jobson, or the " Piatt of the County of Monaghan," preserved in the State Paper Oifice, contains rough sketches of the dwellings of the petty chiefs of Monaghan, which "are in all cases surrounded by water."t In the "Aiuials of the Four Masters," and other records of early Irish history, we meet with numerous instances in which the Crannoges are mentioned, and some in which their position has not preserved them from robbery and * See Wilde's Catalogue, V. i. p. 220. t Ibid. p. 23L LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 31 destruction ; so that we need not be surprised to find that most of the Swiss Lake-habitations appear to have been destroyed by lire. Though, however, these latter resemble the Irish Crannoges in their position and use, they differ considerably from them in their construc- tion. In one or two places, indeed, as for instance at the Steinberg, in the Lake of Bienne, it is possible that an island may have been formed, the bottom of the lake having been artificially raised. It is curi- ous that a canoe laden with stones, was actually found near this spot, it having, apparently, sunk with its load, at the time whenthe Steinberg was in process of construction. After all, however, it seems probable that even in this case, the object was only to obtain a firmer founda- tion for the piles. At the present time the highest part is eight feet below the surface of the water, and nothing justifies us in looking back to any such alteration of level. Moreover, even now the piles project two or tln-eefeet above the surface, upon which.therefore, the cabins cannot have been intended to stand. A small island in Lake Inkwyl, however, reproduces almost exactly the Irish Crannoge. After having chosen a favourable situation, the first step in the con- struction of the Lake-habitations was to obtain the necessary timber. To cut down a tree with a stone hatchet must have been no slight undertakmg. It is, indeed, most probable that they made use of fire, in the same manner as is done by existing savages in felling trees and making canoes. Burning the wood and then scraping away the charred portion, renders, indeed, the task far more easy, and the men of the Stone period appear to have avoided the use of large trees, except in making their canoes. Their piles were imbedded in the mud for from one to five feet, and must also have projected Jfrom four to six feet above the water level, which cannot have been very different from at present. They must, therefore, have had a length of from 1-5 to 30 feet, and they were from 3 to 9 inches in diameter. The pointed extremity which entered into the mud still bears the marks of the fire, and the rude cuts made by the stone hatchets. The piles belonging to the Bronze period being prepared with metal axes, were much more regularly pointed, and the differences between the two have been ingeniously compared to those shown by lead pencils well and badly cut. Dragging the piles to the lake, and fixing them firmly, must have required much labour, especially when their number is considered. At Wangen alone M. Lolile has calculated that 40,000 piles have been used ; but we must remember that these were probably not all ]jlanted at one time, nor by one generation. Wangen, indeed, was certainly not built in a day, but was, no doubt, gradually added to as the population increased. Herodotus informs us that the Pceoniaus made the first platform at the pubHc expense, but that subsequently at every marriage (and polygamy was permitted), the bridegroom was expected to add a certain number of piles to the common support. In some localities, as at Eobenhausen, on Lake Pfeffikon, the piles were strengthened by cross beams. The Pile- works of subsequent periods differ little from those of the Stone age, except, perhaps, that they are more solidly constructed. The piles, S2 OEIGINAL AETICLES. also, are less? decayed, and project above tlie mud farther than those of the preceding epoch. M. Morlot considers that the horizontal plat- form rested upon the top of these piles, at such a height as to allow for all ordinary variations in the level of the water. M. Suter, however, supposes that in some cases, at least, the platform was not attached to the perpendicular piles, but rested upon the water, rising and sinking with it. The structure of the Pileworks at TVauwyl, in the Canton of Lucerne, certainly seems to lavour this view. It was composed of four rectangular divisions, separated by narrow channels, over which, no doubt, bridges were thrown, and through which canoes might pass. The piles were less numerous than usual, and were grouped principally round the outer edge of the platforms. In this case they have been preserved by peat ; they are from three to four and a half inches in diameter, all rounded, and not formed of split timber. In order to ascertain their length, M. Suter dug up two of them ; the longest penetrated four feet through the peat, and ten feet six inches into the ancient bed of the lake ; the other, also four feet through the peat, but only four feet six inches lower. M. Suter examined the piles carefully, but fruitlessly, to ascertain any manner in which the platform can have been attached to them. Tlie platform itself consisted of five layers of trees, curiously and carefully fastened together by clay and interlaced branches of trees, but like the perpendicular piles they were examined in vain for any traces of notches, mortises, holes, ligatures, bolts, or any other contrivance, by which the upright pUes and the platforms could have been fas- tened together. Not only were the debris of their rej^asts, and other rubbish thrown into the water, but more or less valuable weapons and instru- ments must have been sometimes lost in this manner, especially as children formed, of course, the usual proportion of the population. Many of the articles presently to be mentioned, were however, in all probability, engulphed at the destruction of the Pfahlbauten, some of which were perhaps burnt and rebuilt more than once. The number of stone implements which have been abeady found is quite astonishing ; at Wangen, in Lake Constance, many hiuidred weapons of various sorts have been discovered, and a great number also at Moosseedorf,'Wau^vyl and Eobenhausen,in none of which places has a single piece of metal been as yet met Avith, a fact which, taken in connexion with the great number of bronze implements which have been collected from other Pileworks, clearly indicates that the settlements above mentioned, belonged to the age of Stone. Not only, hoY^'evcr, is metal absent, and not only, as we have already seen, does the Fauna indicate a greater antiquity, but the stone weapons themselvess are less varied and less skilfully made. Most of them are made from rocks which occur in Switzerland, though it is pro- bable that the flint was brought from Prance. The absence of any great blocks of this valuable material in Switzerland accounts for our not finding any of the large, flat axes which are so characteristic of northern JEurope, and especially of Denmark. At Wangen, the LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 33 stone implements resemble those of Moosseedorf, and are principally formed of indigenous rocks, wliicli to judge from the fragments scattered about, were evidently worked up at these two places. One or two bits, however, consisted of Oriental Nephrite, which is green, transparent, and of remarkable hardness, and if these really belonged to the Stone age, the fact is very remarkable, as this substance, according to Swiss mineralogists, does not naturally occur in Swit- zerland, and must have been brought from Egypt or Asia. On this point, however, it would be desirable to have more information ; since, if we are to suppose that any such extended commerce existed, it is difficult to understand why bronze and iron were not also introduced. Weapons of Nephrite have also been found at one or two other places, belonging to the Bronze age, and where therefore its presence is less inexplicable. The stone implements found in the settlements belonging to this earliest period consist of hammers, axes, knives, saws, lance-heads, arrow-heads, corn-crushers, and polishing blocks. Some of the hammers were made of serpentine with a hole pierced through one end, and are, like aU pierced stones, of very great rarity, belonging perhaps only to the end of the Stone period . Some of them are cylindrical, others more cubical in shape. The axe was preeminently the im])lement of antiquity. It was used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic purposes, and great numbers have been found, especially at Wangen, (Lake of Constance) aud Concise (Lake of Neufchatel). With a few excep- tions they were surprisingly small, especially when compared with the magnificent specimens from Denmark ; in length they varied from six inches down even as low as one, whUe the cutting edge had generally a width of from 15 to 20 lines. Mint was sometimes used, and nephrite, or jade, in a few cases, but serpentine was the principal material. Most of the larger settlements were evidently manufacturing places, and many spoilt pieces and half finished specimens have been found. The process of manufacture is thus described by M. Troyon. After having chosen a stone, the first step was to reduce it by blows with a hammer to a suitable size. Then grooves were made artificially, which must have been a very tedious and difficult opera- tion, when flint knives, sand, a little water, and an unlimited amount of patience, were the only available iustruments. Having carried the grooves to the required depths, the projecting portions were re- moved by a skilful blow with a hammer, and the implement was then sharpened and polished on blocks of sandstone. Sometimes the hatchet thus obtained was simply fixed in a handle of horn or wood. Generally, however, the whole instrument con- sisted of three parts. A piece of horn, two or three inches in length, received the stone at one end and was squared at the other, so as to fit into a longer handle either of wood or horn. These intermediate pieces present several variations, some are simply squared, others have a projecting wing which rested against the handle, some few are forked as if to I'eceive a wedge, and one had a small transverse hole apparently for the insertion of a peg. N. H. R.— 1862. D 34 OKI GIN AL ARTICLES. The knives may be considered as of t\vo sorts. Some differ from the axes, principally in having their width greater than their length. In other cases they were made of flint flakes. In this manner also were obtained the saws, which in addition had their edges someAvhat rudely dentated ; they were fixed into handles of wood by some sort of cement ; but we do not find in Switzerland any of the semilunar saws, which are frequent in Denmark. The arrow-heads were made of flint, or in some cases of rock crystal, and were, as in Ireland, of tliree principal sorts, between which how- ever, there were a great many varieties. The fii'st sort had a diamond shape, the posterior half of which was, in some specimens, shorter and rounded ofl". Tlie second sort had the posterior margin more or less excavated, so that the angles being produced, as it were, into wings, clasped the shaft and enabled the arrow-head to be more firmly fixed. In the third sort, the middle part of the posterior side had a projection which sunk into the shaft. There are also found rounded stones, pierced with one, or sometimes with two holes. The use of these is uncertain, but they may perhaps have been used to sink fishing lines. "Waste not, want not," is a proverb which the Lalie- dwellers thoroughly appreciated. Ha\'iug caught any vrild animal, except the hare, they ate the flesh, used the skin for clotliing, picked every fragment of marrow out of the bones, and then in many cases, fashioned the bones themselves into weapons. The larger and more compact ones served as hammers, and, as well as horns of the deer, were used for the handles of hatchets. In some cases pieces of bone were worked to a sharp edge, but they can only have been used to cut soft substances.* Bone harpoons, poig- nards, arrow-heads, and javelin heads also occur, and pins and needles of this material are very common. Teeth also, and par- ticularly those of the wild boar, were used for cutting, and were also, in some cases, worn as ornaments or armlets. There can be little doubt that wood was also extensively used for different pur- poses, but unfortunately most of the implements of this material have perished. A wooden mallet, however, was found at Concise. For our knowledge of the animal remains from the Pileworks we are almost entirely indebted to Prof. Eiitimeyer, who has pul)- lished two memoirs on the subject. (Mittheiluugen des Antiq. Ge- sellschaft in Zurich, Bd. xiii. Abth. 2, ISGO ; and, more recently, a separate work. Die Eauna des Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz, 1861.) The bones are in the same fragmentary condition as those from the Kjokkennioddings, and have been opened in the same manner for the sake of the marrow. There is also the same ab.^ence of certain bones and parts of bones, so that it is impossible to reconstruct a perfect skeleton even of the commonest animals. The total number of species amounts to about 66, of which 10 are * According to Sir E. Belcher, however, shaipenccl pieces of horn are used by the Esquimaux in the preparation of flint -weapons. LUBBOCK OS THE ANCIEXT LAKE UABITATlOXS OP SWITZEBLAND. 35 fishes, 3 reptiles, 17 bii'ds, aud the remainder quadrupeds. Of the latter, eight species may be considered as having been domesticated, namely, the Dog, Pig, Horse, Ass, Goat, Sheep, and at least two species of Oxen. The bones very seldom occur in a natural condition, but those of domestic and wild animals are mixed together, and the state in Avhich they are found, the marks of knives upon them, and their having been almost always broken open for the sake of the marrow, are all evidences of human interference. Two species, the one wild, the other domestic, are especially nu- merous, — the Stag and the Ox. The remains of these two indeed equal tliose of all the others together. It is, however, interesting, that in the older settlements, as Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, and Sobenhauseu, (Lake Pfeffikon,) the Stag exceeds the Ox in the number of speci- mens indicated, while the reverse is the case in the more modern settlements of the western lakes, as, for instance, those at Wangen aud Meilen. Next to these in order of abundance is the Hog. More sparing again, and generally represented by single specimens where the pre- ceding occur by dozens, are the Roe, the Goat, and the Sheep, which is most numerous in the latter settlements. With these rank the Fox and the Martens. The Pox indeed, appears, whether fi'om choice or necessity, to have been eaten during the Stone period. Thi ^ A \ t*i a i-^ at o GO -S 3 0) "?. C3 .a i , q5 d GO ^ c 8) c a .2 o pi Qj a '3 o ^ •S 'l> 2 a 2 ^ o 2 + X n 3 (X) + 2 2 ' .... • ■ • • 2 3 (X) (X) 2 3 * • • • 1 • • • • • • • • 2 2 '+' • • • « 2 1 • • • • + • • • ■ 1 + (X) x • • • • + 3 3 1 1 (X) 2 2 2 2 3 3 (2) 2 2 + 1 + + 3 2 (X) 2 2 • * a • 1 5 5 5 5 5 2 (X) 2 2 2 • • • • ? 1 ?1 2 3 3 + 1 2 1 1 2 • • • • 2 1 (X) 5 5 5 5 5 5 (X) 4 2 2 2 2 .... (X) • • • • • • « • e . • . x? x .. .. • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 2 2 2 3-4 (X) (X) 2 1 2 • • • • '(x)' 3-4 1 + 2 • • • • • • • • • • • -f .. . . 1 s 5 5 5 1 5 .') 5 (X) 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 • . • . 1 1 3 2 + 1 3 2 2 * + * 1 ITJBBOCK ON THE AITCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF 8WITZEELAND. 37 The additional species added since tliis table was published are : — 42. The Mouse, M. sylvaticus. A single specimen, from Eo- benhausen. Our common house-mice and rats seem to have been un- known, and even this species is at present represented by but a sLugle specimen. 43. The Hare, Lepus timidus. Of this species only a single bone has yet occurred. It was found at Moosseedorf. It is very remarkable that any nation should have eaten the Fox and spared the Hare, and nothing but a feeling of superstition can account for such an anomaly, which, however, accords weU with the entire absence of the Hare from the Kj5kkenmoddings of Denmark. 44. The Chamois, Antilope rupicapra. This species is represented by a piece of skull from Eobenhausen. 45. A second race of domestic Oxen. 46. The Ass. The additional birds which have been discovered are : — Aquila fulva, Meyer. The Golden Eagle. At Eobenhausen. Aquila haliaetus. A single bone found at Moosseedorf is rather doubtfully referred to this species by M. Eutimeyer. Strix alves. From Concise. Sturnus vulgaris. „ Eobenhausen. Cinclus aquatinus „ Tetrao bonasia „ Ciconia alba. Not unfrequent at Moosseedorf and Eobenhausen. Fulica atra. Eobenhausen. Larus. Sp. in „ Cygnus musicus. „ Ajiser segetum. „ Tlie additional species of fish are : — Perca fluviatilis. Eobenhausen. Scardinius erythropthalmus. „ Chondrostoma nasus. „ Lota vidgaris. „ And one or two species belonging to the genus Squaliua. The common Mouse and our two House-rats, as well as the domestic Cat and the Barndoor-fowl are absent from the Lake-habitations of Switzerland as from the Kjokkenmoddings of Denmark; at least Prof. Eiitimeyer attributes to a later period a single bone of the latter which was found at Merges, a settlement belonging to the Bronze period. The bones of the Stag and the Wild Boar often indicate animals of an unusual magnitude, whUe on the other hand the Fox appears to have been somewhat smaller than at present. The Dogs varied less than at present, in fact they aU belong to one variety, which was of middle size, and appears to have resembled our present Beagles. (M. Eiitimeyer describes it as " resembling the Jagd- hund" and the " "Wachtelhund.") The Sheep of the Stone period differed from the ordinary form, in its small size, fine legs, and short, goat-like horns : particulars, in which it is nearly resembled by, some northern, and mountaia S8 OIIIGIKAL ARTICLES. varieties at tlie present day, as for instance by the small sheep of the Slietlands, Orkneys, Welsh liills, and parts of the Alps. At Wamvyl, however, M. Eii'timeyer found traces of an individual with large horns. Tlie number of wild species of Sheep is so great, and our know- lodge of Ihem is so deficient, that M. Eiitimeyer does not venture to express any opinion concerning the origin of our domestic varieties, except that he is inclined to trace them up to several wild races. It is singular, tliat though remains of the Horse have yet been found in all the Pileworks, they are so rare tliat their presence may a]mo.st be considered accidental: thus Wangen has only produced a single tooth, Moosseedorf, a metatarsal bone, which has been polished on one side, Eobenhausen, a single Os naviculare tarsi, and Wauwyl, only a fcAv bones, v.'hich may all have belonged to a single specimen. On the other hand, when we come to the Bronze period, we find at Steinberg, numerous remains of this species, so that, as far as these sliglit indications go, the Horse, though undoubtedly present in the Stone age, seems to have been rarer than it became at subsequent periods. All the remains of the Horse belonged undoubtedly to the domestic species. . Though he refers some bones to the Wild Boar, and others to the Domestic Hog, yet he considers that the greatest number of the remains of this genus belong to a diiferent race, which he calls Sus scrofa palustris. This variety Avas, in his opinion, less powerful and dangerous than the Wild Boar, the tusks being much smaller in pro- ])orti<)n ; in fact he describes it as having with the molar teeth of an ordinary full grown Wild Boar, the premolars, canines, andincisives of a young Domestic Hog. He considers that all the bones of tliis variety from Moosseedoif, belonged to wild individuals, while of those from Nidau- Steinberg, Eobenhausen, Wauwyl, and Concise, some bore in his opinion evidences of domestication. It has been supposed by some naturabsts that this variety was founded only on female specimens, but in his last work, M. Eiitimeyer combats this opinion at some length, and gives copious descriptions and measurements of the diflevcnt parts. He also points out numerous sexual difterences in the S. palustris, of the same nature, but not so well marked, as tliose of tlie Wild Boar. Eelying also on its well defined geographical and historical range, lie denies that it can be considerd as a cross be- tween the Wild Boar and Domestic Hog, or that the difterences which He|>arate it from the former, can be looked upon as mere individual pecidiarilies. He considers, indeed, that as a wild animal it became extinct at a very early period, though the tame S^\•ine of India whicli agi-ee clo.^ely with this race may perhaps have been descended from it. Our Domestic Hog fii-st makes its appearance in the later Pile- works, as for instance at Concise. M. Eiitimeyer does not, however, consider lliat it can have been derived from the Wild Boar (Sus scrota), nor does he think that it was tamed by the inhabitants of Swii/ei-laud, but is rather dis])osed to look "upon it as having been introduced, and the more so, as he finds at Concise traces LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLANI). 39 of an Ox (-B. trochoceros) wliich does not occur in tlie earlier Pileworks. In considering whether a given animal was wild or domesticated, we must be guided by the folloTvdng considera- tions : the number of individuals represented ; the relative propor- tions of young and old ; the absence or presence of very old individuals, at least of species that served for food ; the traces of long, though indirect, selection, in diminishing the size of any natural weapons which might be injurious to man ; the direct action of man dining the lile of the animal ; and finally the texture and condition of the bones. Applying these considerations to the Sus palustris from Moos- seedorf, it is evident, firstly, that the argument derivable from the number of young specunens loses much of its force on account of the great fertility of the Sow, and the ease with which the yoimg can be found and"^ destroyed ; secondly, in the number of individuals represented, it is equalled by the S'tag, vvhich certainly was never domesticated ; thirdly, some bones of very old individuals have been found and some of very young, even of unborn pigs ; the small- ness of the tusks is, according to M. Eiitimeyer, a characteristic of the race and not an evidence of domestication ; the bones are of a firm and close texture, and the only cases of decay have arisen from an extreme degradation of the teeth, which would certainly be unlikely to occur in a domestic animal, finally, none of the teeth show traces of any filing or other preparation, except such as may have taken place after the death of the animal, from all of which reasons M. Eiitimeyer infers that the inhabitants of Moosseedorf had not yet succeeded in taming either the Sus scrofa palustris or the Sus scrota ferus. M. Eiitimeyer has paid great attention to the texture and condi- tion of the bones themselves, and in many cases can from these alone distinguish the species, and even determine whether the bone belonged to a wild or a domesticated animal. In wild animals the bones are of a firmer and closer texture, there is an indescribable, but to the accustomed eye very characteristic, scvdpturing of the external surface, produced by the sharj^er and more numerous impressions of vessels, and the greater roughness of the surfaces for the attachment of muscles. There is also an exaggeration of all projections and ridges, and a diminution of all indilferent surfaces. In the consideration of the remains of Oxen, these distinctions have proved of the greatest importance. By their assist- ance, and this is in some respects the most interesting part of the work, M. Eiitimeyer has convinced himself that besides the two wild species of Bos, namely the Urus (B. primigenhis) and the Aurochs {B. bison or Bison Europeus), three domestic races of Oxen occur in PileworlvS. The first of these is allied to, and in his opinion descended from, the Urus, and he therefore calls it the Primigenius race. This variety occurs in aR the Pileworks of the Stone period. The second or Trochoceros race, he correlates with a fossil species described luider 40 OEiaiNAL AETICLES. this name by F. von Meyer, from the Diluvium of Arezzo and Siena, This variety has hitherto only been found at Concise. The third, or Longifrons race, is by far the most common of the three. It occurs in all the Pileworks, and at Moosseedorf and "Wangen — that is to say, in the settlements which are supposed to be the oldest, ahuost to the exclusion of the Primigenius race. M. Eutimeyer considers that it is the domesticated form of B. longifrons of Owen, but as the word " longifrons " seems to him to be inappro- priate and incorrect, he uses the name " braehyceros," which was ori- ginally proposed in manuscript by Owen for this species, but which has also been used by Gray for an African species, and ought not therefore to be adopted. A subsequent portion of the work is devoted to the examination of the existing races of Eurojjean Oxen. The old Trochoceros race he considers to be extinct, but he sees in the great Oxen of Fries- land, Jutland, and Holstein, the descendants of the Bos primigenius. This race does not now occur in Switzerland, but he considers that there are at present in that country two distinct varieties of Domestic Oxen. Tlie one of various shades between light grey and dark brown, but without spots, and prevailing in Schwyz, tJri, Wallis, &c., in fact, in the whole country south of a line dra^vTi from the Lake of Constance to WaUis, agrees in its general osteological characters with the Bos longifrons of Owen. The other or spotted variety, which is generally of smaller size, and prevails in Isorthern Switzerland, is considered by M. Eiitimeyer to be descended from the B. frontosus, a species found fossil in Sweden and described by Nillson. I wiU not express any opinion of my own as to these conclusions. The subject is one no less dilhcult than important, and our space does not permit us to lay before our readers the details given by M. Elitimeyer, to whose work therefore we mvist refer all those who wish for more information on the subject. All naturalists must feel much indebted to M. Eiitimeyer for the labour he has spent, and the light he lias thrown upon the subject, whether we eventually adopt his conclusions or not. In six woodcuts at the termination of this memoir, I give representations of the skulls of these three races, and those of the corresponding fossil species. Human bones occur in the Pileworks but very seldom, and may no doubt be referred to accidents, especially as we fmd that those of children are most numerous. One mature skull was, however, dis- covered at Meilen, and has been described by Professor His, Avho considers that it does not diiFer much from the ordinary S^sviss type. And while his work was in the press, M. Riitimeyer received from M. Schwab four more skulls, two of which were obtained at Nidan- Steinberg, one at Sutz, and one from Biel. M. Troyon has a very interesting chapter on the different modes of burial ; he points oiit that the disposition of the corpse after death, had a deep meaning and is perhaps of greater importance than tiie nature of the tomb, which must in many cases have depended upon tliat of the materials which came to hand. The Greeks gener- LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 4fi ally burnt their dead ; considering fire as the means of purification, while the Persians, shrank from such an act, regarding fire, according to Herodotus, as a deity. Other nations, looldng upon the earth as the universal mother, returned into her bosom the remains of their dead, fortunately ignorant of the deduction that as we brought nothing into the world so we can take nothing out of it, and re- garding it therefore as a sacred duty to bury with the departed his most useful weapons and most beautiful ornaments. Tliis belief seems to have been almost as general as the hope of a resurrection, and even among the Jews we find a trace of it in the words of Eze- kiel (ch. xxxii. p. 27). "And they shall not lie with the mighty " that are fallen of the uncircumcised, which are gone down to hell " with their weapons of war." In tombs of the Stone age the corpse appears to have been almost always, if not always, buried in a sitting position, with the knees brought up imder the chin, and the hands crossed over the breast.* This attitude occurs also in many Asiatic, African, and American tombs. M. Troyon, quotes the following passage from a work published by Andre Thevet, in 1575 ; " Quand done (speak- ing of the Brazilian aborigines), leurs parents sont morts, ils les courbent dans un bloc et monceau dans la lict oh. ils sont decedes, tout ainsi que les enfants sont au ventre de la mere, puis ainsi enve- loppes, lies et garrottes de cordes, ils les mettent dans une grande vase de terre." M. Troyon adds, " Chez certains Indiens, les meres, apres avoir donne a I'homme, avant de I'inhumer, I'attitude qu'il avait dans le sein maternel, epanchent leur lait sur la tombe. Cet usage dea meres, qui assimile I'homme apres sa mort au petit enfant qu'elles nom*rissent de leur lait, s'est conserve, sauf I'attitude, il est ATai, jusqu'au commencement de ce siecle, dans le centre de I'Europe, dans la vallee alpestre des Ormonts ;" making this last statement on the authority of M. Terrise, Avho was himself an eye-witness of this extraordinary custom. Making allowance for the marine animals, such as the seals and oysters, the cockles, whelks, &c., the fauna thus indicated by the remains found in the Swiss lakes, agrees remarkably with that which characterises the Danish Kjokkenmoddings, and belongs evidently to a far later age than that of the celebrated stone hatchets, which were first made known to us by the genius and perseverance of M. Boucher de Perthes.f ^om qib n , 'Lii, .V . IL< * See for Denmark, Worsaae's Antiquities, Eng. Edit. p. 89. To jndge from Mr. Bateman's excellent volmne just published, " Ten years diggings in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills," the same position was, to say the least of it, very common iu early British Tombs, in which also the corpse was generally deposited on its left side. It woidd be very interesting if some Archajologist would tabulate all the ac- counts of ancient graves, showing the ornaments and weapons which have been found with ditferent methods of interment. t Whether the Drift race of men were really the aboriginal inhabitants of Europe, still remains to be ascertained. M. Riitimeyer hints, that our geographical distribution imlicates a still greater antiquity for the human race. 42 ORIGINAL AETICLES. Instead of the Elepliaut and Eliuioceros we find in the later or f«eeond stone period, in that namely of the Kjokkenmbdding and " Pfahlbauten," the Urns and Bison, the Elk and the Eed deer already installed as monarchs of the forests. The latter indeed, with the Boar, appears to have been very frequent, and to have formed a most important article of food to the Lake-dwellers. The Urns, or great fossil Ox is now altogether extinct. It was mentioned by Caesar, who describes it as being little smaller than an elephant. (Hi sunt magnitudiue panlo inti-a elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri.) According to Herberstem, it stUl existed in Switzerland during the sixteenth centuiy, soon after which, however, it must have become extinct. The Aurochs, or European Bison seems to have disappeared from Western Europe even earHer than the Urus. There is no liistorical record of its existence in England or Scandinavia. In Switzerland we cannot trace it later than the tenth centui'y, but it is men- tioned in the " Niebelungen Lied," of the twelfth century, as occur- ring in the Forest of Worms, and ia Prussia the last was killed iu the year 1775. At one period indeed, it appears to have inhabited almost the whole of Europe, much of Asia, and part even of Ame- rica, but at present it is confined in Europe, to the imperial forests in Lithuania, where it is preserved by the Emperor of Kussia, while, according to Nordmann and Yon Baer, it still exists in some parts of Western Asia. We have no notice of the existence of the Elk in Switzerland during the historical period, but it is mentioned by Ca?sar as exist- ing in the great Hercynian forest ; and even in the twelfth century it was to be met with in Sclav onia and Hungary, according to Albertus Magnus and Gresner. In Saxony, the death of the last is recorded as having occurred in 1746. At present it inhabits Prussia and Lithuania, Einland and Eussia, Scandinavia and Siberia, to the shores of the Amoor. Tlie Ibex disappeared from most of the Swiss Alps, perhaps not much later than the Elk. It lingered longest iu the West. In Grlarus the last one perished in 1550, though near Chiavenna it existed until the commencement of the 17th century, and in the Tyrol until the second half of the 18th, while it still maintains itself in the mountains surrounding Mont Iseran. The extermination of the Bear, like that of the Ibex, seems to have begun in the East, and not yet to be complete, since this animal stni occm'S in the Jura, in Wallis, and in the South-Eastern parts of Switzerland. The Eox, the Otter, and the different species of Weasels, are si ill the common carnivora of Switzerland, and the Wild Cat, the Badger, and the Wolf still occur in the Jura and the Alps, the latter in cold winters venturing even into the plains. The Beaver on the contrary has at last disappeared. It has long been very rare in Switzerland, but a few survived until the beginning of the present century, in Lucerne and Wallis. Eed deer LUBBOCK OX THE ANCIENT LASE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 43 were abuudaut in the Jura and Black Forest iu tiie twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, though they do not apjiear to have been so large as those which lived in earlier times. The last was shot in Basle, at the close of the eighteenth century, v/hile in Western Swdtzerland and WaUis they lingered somewhat longer. The Eoedeer still occurs in some places. The Fauna thus indicated is certainly very much what might have been expected. We find most of the species which characterise the post-tertiary epoch in Europe. Some of the larger ones have since iallen avv-ay in the struggle for existence, and others are becoming rarer and rarer every year, while some maintain themselves even now, thanks only to the inclemency and inaccessibility of the mountainous regions Avhich they inhabit. Tlie gradual process of extermination, which has continued ever since, had however even then begun. Taken as a whole, therefore, the animals of the Swiss Pileworks belong evidently to the Fauna, which commenced in post-tertiary times with the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, the Cave Bear, and the -Fossil Hya?]ia. These extinct species appear to have co-existed in Europe with aU of its present indigenous inhabitants ; it was, indeed, long supposed that man belonged to a subsequent period, but recent investigations have shown, that he is no exception to the rule. While, however, we must regard tlie Fauna of the Stone age as belonging to the same Zoological epoch with that of the later drifts on the one hand, and the present time on the other ; we cannot forget that the immense time which has elapsed since the end of the Tertiary period, has produced great changes in the Fauna of Europe. In this Post-tertiary era the Pileworks occupy, so to say, a middle ]30sition. Distmguished from the present Fauna of Switzerland in the possession of the Urus, the Bison, the Elk, the Stag, and the Wild Boar, as well as by the more general distribution of the Beaver, the Bear, the Wolf, the Ibex, the Roe, &c., they diifer equally from tlie drift gravels in the absence of the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros, the Cave Bear, and the Cave Hyaena. M. Riitimeyer, however, thinks that we may carry this division far- ther, and he considers that some of the Pileworks presenting a more archaic character than others, they may be arranged as follows : — Istly, Moosseedorf 2ndly, As being somewhat more recent, Wauwyl, Robenhauseu, Wangen, and Meilen. Srdly, The Lake-habitations of Western Switzerland. It is of course unnecessary to point out the interest and impor- tance of such a distinction, which accords so well with that indicated by the study of the weapons and tlie state of pi*eservation of the piles. Thus, the Urus has only occurred at Moosseedorf and Robenhausen ; the Aurochs only at Wauwyl ; the Bear only at Moosseedorf and Meilen. A glance at the table given at page 250, will show that several other species have as yet only occurred at Moosseedorf and Roben- hauseu, a fact however whidi indicates rather the richness than the 44 OEiaiKAIi ABTICLES. antiquity of these localities. Possibly indeed we may consider tlie presence of these larger species as an indication of their greater abun- dance in the oldest period ; but we must not forget that not only the Bear and the Elk, but also the Aurochs and Urus come down to a much later period. On the other hand, the abundance of wUd animals, and the fact tliat at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl the Fox was more abundant than the Dog, while elsewhere the reverse is the case, certainly speaks in favour of the greater antiquity of these two settlements. The evidence derived from the distribution of the domestic animals is perhaps more satisfactory. The Sheep is present even at Moossee- dorf, though not so numerous as at the Steinberg. On the other hand, the Horse is frequent at the Steinberg, while at Moosseedorf only a single tooth was discovered, and even this had been worn as an amulet or an ornament, and may have been brought from a distance. Finally, the domestic Hog of the present race is absent from all the Pileworks of the Stone period, excepting perhaps the one at "W^.u- wyl, and becomes frequent only at the Steinberg. If succeeding investigations confirm the conclusions thus indicated, we may perhaps conclude that the domestic animals, which were com- paratively rare in the Stone period, became more frequent after the introduction of bronze, a change indicating and perhaps producing an alteration of habits on the part of the inhabitants. Eare, indeed, as they may have been, Oxen, Horses, Sheep, and Groats could not be successfully kept through the winter in the cli- mate of Switzerland, without stores of provisions and some sort of shelter. A pastoral people, therefore, must have reached a higher grade than a mere nation of hunters. We know, moreover, in another man- ner, that at this period agriculture was not entirely imknown. Thia is proved in the most unexpected manner, by the discovery of car- bonised Cereals at various points. Wheat is most common, ha\'ing been found at Meilen, Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the latter place, indeed, many bushels were found, the grains being united in large thick lumps. At other times the grains are free, and without chalF, resembling our present wheat in size and form, while more rarely they are still in the ear. Ears of the Hordeum hexastichon L. (the six rowed Barley) are somewhat numerous. This species differs from the H. vulgare L. in the number of rows and in the smaller size of the grains. According to De CandoUe, it was the species gene- rally cultivated by the ancient Eomans, Grreeks, and Egyptians. In the ears from Wangen, each row has generally ten or eleven grains, which however are smaller and shorter than those now grown. StiU more unexpected was the discovery of bread, or rather cakes, for leaven does not appear to have been used. They were flat and round, from an inch to 15 lines in thickness, and, to judge from one specimen, had a diameter of four or five inches. In other cases the grains seem to have been roasted, coarsely ground between stones, and then either stored up in large earthenware pots, or eaten after being slightly moistened. A similar mode of preparing grain was used in the Canary Islands at the time they were conquered by Spain, LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 45 and even now constitutes the principal food of the poorer classes. In what manner the ground was prepared for the cultivation of corn we know not, as no agricultural implements have as yet been found except sickles : it is probable however that bent stakes supplied the place of the plough. Carbonised Apples and Pears have also been found at Wangen, sometimes whole, sometimes cut into two, or more rarely into four pieces, which had evidently been dried and put aside for winter use. The apples are more frequent than the pears, and have been found not only at "Wangen, but also at Eobenhauseu in Lake Pfeffikon, and at Concise in Lake Neufchatel. Both apples and pears are small and resemble those which still grow wild in the Swiss forests. No traces of the Vine, the Cherry, or the Damson have yet been met with, but stones of the Wild Plum and the Prunus padus have been found. Seeds of the Easpberry and Blackberry and shells of the Hazel nuts and beechnuts occur plentifully in the mud. From aU this, therefore, it is evident that the nourishment of the dwellers in the Pileworks consisted of corn and wild fruits, of fish, and the flesh of wild and domestic animals. Doubtless also milk waa an important article of their diet. The list of plants found in the Pileworks stands as follows : — Pinus abies. „ picea. „ sylvestris. Quercus Eobur. Fagus sylvaticus. Populus tremula. Betula alba. Alnus glutinosa. Corylus avellana. Prunus spinosa. „ padus. Eubus idasus. „ fruticosus. Wlieat. Hordeum distichum. „ hexastichon. Trapa natans.— This species was supposed to be extinct in Switzerland ; but, as M. Troyon informs me by letter, it has recently been discovered in a living condition. It has, however, become very rare. Plax. Hemp. Juncus. Arundo. Neither Oats nor Rye have yet been found. Small pieces of twine and bits of matting made of hemp and flax may have been parts of some article of clothing. Por the latter purpose also there can be 46 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. little doubt tliat the skins of animals were used, and some of tlie stone implements seem well adapted to assist in their preparation, Wilde the bone pins, and the needles made from the teeth of boars, may have served to fasten them together. The Pottery of the Stone a^e presents nearly the same charac- ters in all the settlements. Very rude and coarse, it is generally found in broken pieces, and few entire vessels have been obtained. The potter's wheel seems to have been unknown, and the baking was very imperfect. The form was frequently cylindrical, but several of the jars were rounded at the base, and without feet. The rings of pottery, which at a later epoch were used as stands for these earthen tumblers, are not found in the Lake habitations of the Stone period, but some of the vessels had small projections which were pierced in such a manner that strings might be passed through them, and the vessels might in this manner be suspended. Some of them were also pierced by small holes at different levels. Professor Heer suggests that these may have been used in the prejDaration of curds, the small holes being intended to permit the escape of the milk. Several of the vessels are ornamented with simple marliings, generally mere impressions of the finger or of the nail. Neitl;er in the Stone, nor in the Bronze period, do we ever find either in the pottery, or on the bronze weapons, any representation, however rude, of a7i animal ; the ox'namentation being generally confined to straight or curved lines, forming in many cases a very elegant ornament. One vase, however, which was foimd at Wangen, is distinguished by more elaborate ornaments, the lines being evidently intended to re- present leaves. The lakes on which Pileworks of the Stone era have as yet been foiuid, are Constance, Zurich, Bienne, Neufchatel, Geneva, Inkwyl, Nussbaumen, Pfeffikon, Moosseedorf, and Wauwyl. Settle- ments of the Bronze period existed on the Lakes of Geneva, Luissel, Neufchatel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach, but none have as yet been found on Lake Constance. It has been supposed from this that the age of Stone lasted longer in Eastern than in "Western Switzerland, and that flint and serpentine were in use on Lake Constance long after Bronze had replaced them on the Western Lakes. We can hardly suppose that the inliabitants of Inkwyl and Moosseedorf in Berne, who imported flint from France, can have been iguorant of the neighbouring civilization on the Lake of Bienne. Perhaps, however, settlements of the Bronze age may yet be found on the Lake of Constance ; but as the question noAV stands, Pileworks of tlie Metallic period are pecidiar to Western and Central Switzerland. The constructions of the latter period are more solidly built, but do not otherwise appear to have differed materially from those of the Stone age. They are often, however, situated farther from the laud and in deeper water, partly no doubt on account of the greater facility of working timber, but partly also, perhaps, because more protection was needed as the means of attack were improved. The principal implements of Bronze are, swords. LUBBOCK 0?r THE ANCIENT LAKE UABITATIONS OF SWITZEELAND. 47 daggers, axes, spear heads, knives, arrow heads, pins, and ornaments. TiicTnumber of these weapons wliich have been discovered is already verv great. From the settlement at Estavayer, in Lake Neufchatel, the follow- ing collection of bronze implements has been obtained : — • Pius with large spherical and ornamented heads 36 „ ordinary heads - - • • .9^ Knives Bracelets Sickles Axe Hook . Chisel . Small rings Buttons Dagger blade Arrow head . Pieces of spiral wire 26 15 5 1 1 1 27 2 1 1 6 Maldng altogether .... 214 objects of bronze. Again at Merges (Lake of Greneva) forty -two bronze hatchets and thirteen pins have been fomid. From the Steinberg M. Schwab has obtained five hundred bronze hair-pins, besides other instruments of the same metal. Tliese are of the same type as those found in other parts of Europe, and the swords are characterised, as usual, by the small space alloAved for the hand. They were, however, made in Switzerland, as is shown by the discovery at Merges of a mould for celts, and at Estavayer of a bar of tin. The pottery of this period was more varied and more skilfully made than that of the Stone age, and the potter's wheel was already in use. Eings of earthenware are common, and appear to have been used as supports for the round bottomed vases. As neither copper nor tin occur in Switzerland, the possession of bronze implies the existence of commerce. It is difficult to say from whence the copper was obtained, but Saxony and Cornwall are the only parts of Europe which produce tin. It is, however, possible that Asia may have supplied both the one and the other. The presence of amber shows that there must have been a certain amount of conuiiunication with Xorthern Europe. The Pileworks of Switzerland appear to have become gi'adually less numerous. During the Stone age they were spread over the whole coimtry. Confined during the Bronze era to the Lakes of AVestern Switzerland, during that of Iron, we find them only on the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. In these settlements not only has a new substance made its appearance, but the forms of the imple- ments are different. We have indeed copies of the bronze axes made in iron, just as we found before that the early bron^.e celts were copies of the still earlier stone axe, but these are exceptional cases. 48 OEIGIKAL AETICLES. The swords have larger handles and are more richly ornamented ; the knives have straight edges ; the sickles are larger ; the pottery is more skilfully made and is ornamented with various colours ; the personal ornaments are also more varied, and glass for the first time makes its appearance. Col. Schwab has found at the Steinberg more than twenty cres- cents, made of earthenware, and with the convex side flattened, to serve as a foot. They are compressed at the sides, sometimes plain, sometimes ornamented, from eight to twelve inches from one horn to the other, and from six to eight inches in height. They are con- sidered by Dr. Keller to be religious emblems, and are taken as evi- dence of moon- worship. He refers to Pliny, xvi. 95 ; " Est autem id " (viscum) rarum admodum iuventu et repertum magna religione peti- " tur et ante omnia sexta luna, quae principia mensum annorumque his " facit, et sseculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde " habeat nee sit sui dimidia ; omnia sanantem appelaides suo vocabulo.^' Tliis passage he translates as follows : " The misletoe is however very rare, but when it is found it is gathered with great religious ceremony, especially on the sixth day of the moon, at which epoch begin their months, years, and divisions of thirty years, because it has then suffi- cient force, and yet is not in the middle of its course ; calling it Heal- all in their language." This name has generally been referred to the misletoe. (See The Celt, Eoman and Saxon, p. 48.) But the S^-iss archaeologists consider that this is a mistake, and that it propei'ly refers to the moon. A field of battle at Tiefenau, near Berne, is remarkable for the great number of iron weapons and implements which have been found on it. Pieces of chariots, about a hundred swords, pieces of coat of mail, lance heads, rings, fibulse, ornaments, utensils, pieces of pottery and of glass, accompanied by more than thirty pieces of Gaulish and Massaliote money anterior to our era, enable us to refer this battle- field to the Eoman era. After this period we find no more evidences of Lake habitations on a large scale. Here and there indeed a few fishermen may have lingered on the half-destroyed platforms, but the wants and habits of the people had changed, and the age of Pileworks was at an end. We have, however, traced them through the Stone and Bronze dowai to the beginning of the Iron period. We have seen evidences of a gradual progress in civilization, and improvement in tlie arts, an increase in the domestic animals, and proofs at last of the existence of an extended commerce. We found the country inhabited only by rude savages and we leave it the seat of a powerful nation. Changes so important as these are not effected in a day ; the progress of the human mind is but slow ; and the gradual additions to human know- ledge and power, like the rings in trees, enable us to form some idea how distant must be the date of their commencement. So varied however are the conditions of the human mind, so much are all na- tions affected by the influence of others, that when we attempt to LUBBOCK ON THE AKCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. 49 express our impressions, so to say, in terms of years, we are bafSed by the complexity of tlie problem, 'aud cau but confess our ignorance. Occasionally indeed we obtain a faint glimmer of light, but the result is only to show us obscurely a long vista, without enabling us to de- fine any well-marked points of time. Thus in Denmark we found three periods of arborescent vegetation, corresponding to the three epochs of human development, and we know that the extermination of one species of forest tree and its replacement by another is not the work of a day. The Swiss archaeologists, however, have attempted to make an estimate somewhat more definite than this. Tlie torrent of the Tiniere* at the point where it falls into the Lake of Greneva, near Villeneuve, has gradually built up a cone of gravel and alluvium. In the formation of the railway this cone has been bisected for a length of one thousand feet, and to a depth in the cen- tral part, of about thirty-two feet six inches above the level of the rails. Tlie section of the cone thus obtained shows a very regular structure, which proves that its formation was gradual. It is composed of the game materials (sand, gravel, and larger blocks) as are even now brought down by the stream. The detritus does indeed difter slightly from year to year, but in the long run the differences compensate for one another, so that when considering long periods and the struc- ture of the whole mass, the influences of these temporary variations, which arise from meteorological causes, altogether disappear, and need not therefore be taken into account. Documents preserved in the archives of Yilleneuve show that in the year 1710 the stream was dammed up and its course a little altered, which makes the present cone slightly ii-regnlar. That the change was not of any great antiquity is also shown by the fact that on the side where the cone was protected by the dykes, the vegetable soil, where it has been affected by cultivation, does not exceed two to three inches in thickness. On this side, thus protected by the dykes, the railway cutting has exj)osed three layers of vegetable soil, each of which must, at one time, have formed the surface of the cone. They are regularly intercalated among the gravel, and exactly parallel to one another, as well as to the present surface of the cone, which itself follows a very regular curve. The first of these ancient surfaces was followed on the south side of the cone, over a surface of 15,000 square feet ; it had a thickness of four to six inches, and occurred at a depth of about four feet (1.14 metre measured to the base of the layer) below the present surface of the cone. Tliis layer belonged to the Eoman period, and contained lioman tiles, and also a coin. The second layer was followed over a siu'face of 25,000 square feet ; it was six inches in thickness and lay at a depth of 10 feet (2.97 metres, also measured to the bottom of the layer). In it have been found several fragments of unvarnished pottery, and a pair of tweezers in bronze, which to judge from the style belonged to the * See IMoiiot, Le^on d'OuvcrUirc, &c. N. H. E.— 1862. E 50 OT?TGTNAL ATITTCLES. Bronze epoch. The third layer has been followed for 3500 square feet ; it was six or seven inches in thickness, and lay at a depth of 19 feet (5.69 metres) below the present surface : in it were found some fragments of very rude pottery, some pieces of charcoal, some bro- ken bones, and a human skeleton with a small, round, and very thick skull. Fragments of charcoal were even found a foot deeper, and it is also worthy of notice that no trace of tiles was found below the upper layer of earth. Towards the centre of the cone, the three layers disappear, since, at this part, the torrent has most force, and has deposited the coarsest materials, even some blocks as much as three feet in diameter. The farther we go from this central region the smaller are the inateriala deposited, and the more easily might a layer of eai-th, formed since the last great inundations, be covered over by fresh deposits. Thus, at a depth of ten feet, in the gravel on the south of the cone, at a part where the laj^er of earth belonging to the bronze age had already disappeared, two unrolled bronze implements were dis- covered. They had probably been retained by their weight, when the earth, which once covered them, was washed away by the torreiit. After disappearing towards the centre of the cone, the three layers reappear on the north side, at slightly greater depth, but with the same regularity and the same relative position. The layer of the Stone age was but slightly interrupted, while that of the Bronze era was easily distinguishable by its peculiar character and colour. Here, therefore, we have phenomena so regular, and so well marked that we may apply to them a calculation, with some little confidence of at least approximate accuracy. Making then some allowances, for instance, admitting three hundred years instead of one hundred and fifty, for the period since the embankment, and taking the Eoman period as representing an antiquity of from sixteen to eighteen cen- turies, we should have for the age of Bronze an antiquity of from 2900 to 4200 years, for that of the Stone period from 4700 to 7000 years, and for the whole cone an age of from 7400 to 11,000 years. M. Morlot thinks that we should be most nearly correct in deducting two hundred years only for the action of the dykes, and in attri- buting to the Eoman layer an antiquity of sixteen centuries, that is to say, in referring it to the middle of the third century. This would give an age of 3800 years for the Bronze age and 6400 jeam for that of Stone, but on the whole he is inclined to suppose for the former an antiquity of from 3000 to 4000 years, and for the latter of from 5000 to 7000 years. In the settlement at the foot of Mt. Chamblon we have, according to M. Troyon, a second instance in which we obtain at least some approximation to a date. The intei'est which attaches to this case Arises from the fact that Pileworks have been found in the peat at a considerable distance from the lake, whereas it is evident that at the time of their construction the spot in which they occur must have been under water, as this mode of building would have been quite LUBBOCK ON THE ANCIENT LAKE HABITATIONS OF 8WITZEELAND. 51 out of place on dry laud. This however indicates a very consider- able antiquity, since the site of the ancient city Eburodunum must have been, at tliat time, entirely covered by the lake, and yet the name, which is of Celtic origin, denotes that there was a town here even before the Eoman period. In order, however, to form an idea of the time at which the dwellings at Chamblon were left dry by the retirement of the lake, we must have in the valley a point of deter- mined age, to serve as a term of comparison, and such a point we find in the ancient city of Eburodunum (Tverdon), which was built on a dune extending from Jorat to the Thiele. Between this dune and the lake, on the site at present occupied by the city of Tverdon no traces of Eoman antiquities have ever been dis- covered, from which it is concluded that it was at that period under water. If then we admit that at the close of the fourth century the lake washed the walls of the Castrum Eburodense, we shall have fifteen centuries as the period requned to eftect this change. The zone thus luicovered in fifteen hundred years is 2500 feet in breadth, and as the piles at Chamblon are at least 5500 feet from the water, it may be in- ferred that three thousand three hundred years must have elapsed since they were left diy. This Lake-dwelling belonged to the Bronze period, and the date thus obtained, agrees pretty well with that obtained from the examination of the Cone de la Tiniere. M. Troyon adds that " rien ne fait soup^onner, pendant I'epoque humaine et anterieurement " a notre ere, des conditions d'accroisement difterentes de celles qiu ont " eu lieu posterieurement aux Eomains; le resultat obtenu est meme un " minimum, vu que la vallee va se retrecissant du cote du lac et que " nous avons admis la presence de celui-ci au pied meme d'Eburodunum " dans le JY^ siecle de I'ere chretienne, tandis qu'il est probable que " la retraite des eaux n'a pas ete insensible depuis le moment ou les " Eomains se sont fixes sur ce point." However this may be, and while freely admitting in how many respects this calculation is open to objection, we may stiU observe that the result agrees in some measure "wdth that given by the Cone de la Tiniere. The ancient history of Greece and Eome, as far as it goes, tends to confirm these dates, since we know that at the time of Homer and Hesiod, arms were, in part at least, made of iron, and as we Ivnow that, at a very early period, there was a certain amount of commerce between Helvetia and the shores of the Mediterranean, we can hardly suppose that a metal so immensely important as iron, can have remained unknown in the former country, long after it was gene- rally used throughout the latter. Still, though we must not conceal from ourselves the imperfection of the archaeological record, we need not despair of eventually obtaining some more definite chronology. Our knowledge of primitive anti- quity has made an enormous stride in the last ten years, and the future is full of hope. I am glad to hear from M. Troyon that the Swiss archjpologists are continuing their labours. They may feel assured that we in England await with interest the results of their investigations. e2 52 OEiaiNAL ABTTCLES. Bos PRiMiGENius. A. Skiill of tlic existing Race, after RUtimeycr. — B. Fossil skull. Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Birds. B. LONGIFRONS. A. Skull of the existing Racc, after Eiitimejer, — B. Fossil skull. Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Bu'ds. B. FRONTOSUS. A. Skull of the existing Race, after Riitimcyer. — B. Fossil skull, after Nillson. 53 YI._]SrEw Eeseaeches respecting the Co-existence oe Man WITH THE Great Fossil Mammals, regarded as Charac- teristic OF THE LATEST GrEOLOGiCAL PERIOD. By M. Edward Lartet. (Ann, des Sc. Nat. 4me Serie. Tom. XV.) The town of Auriguac, situated in the arrondissement of St. Gaudens (Haute Garonne), is placed nearly on the summit of one of five eminences, constituting a hiUy range, whose geognostic formation and upheaved strata manifest its relations with the dislocated spurs of the Pyrenean system. The contour of this oreographic projection, in which the strata of the chalk and of the uummulitic or supracretaceous rock are not always incHned in the same direction, differs but little from that of the tertiary hiUs which rise below it to the west. The confused and miinformed traveller, consequently, approaching Aurig- uac from that side, would not perceive the transition which is manifested under his feet, were not his attention awakened by a sudden change in the nature of the rocks and by the evidences of dislocation presented in the road-cuttings. The road leading from Aurignac to the little town of Boulogne in the same arrondissement, runs pretty nearly from east to west, on the southern flank of the mountain of Portel. On the opposite side, to the south, rises the mountain of Fajoles,* forming an_ elongated, saddle- shaped ridge, which runs in pretty nearly the same direction, and which, though of lower elevation, and nowhere precipitous, is nevertheless completely isolated from all the hydrogra])hic influences of the district. Between these two eminences, or mountains, is a contracted valley along whose bottom runs the brook of Eodes or Arrodes, which, on reaching, a little more to the west, the foot of the mountain of Portel, turns sharply round to the north, and after running a few kilometres to the north-west joins the Louge, a small river which takes its rise on the plateau of Lanemezan. * In the patois of the cotmtry : 3[ountagno de las Najoles, mountain of Beeches. But at the present time not a single beech tree is to be fomid either on this moun- tain or in the surrounding country, nor does there exist any rememljrancc or tradition even of their formerly having flourished there. The arboreal vegetation of any region is subject to great variations in the progress of time, even indepen- dently of any change in the climatal conditions. The valuable researches of Professor J. Steenstrup on the Skovmosses, or Forest Turf-bogs of Denmark, have shown, that in that coimtry there have been three distinct periods of arboreal vegetation since the existence of man : 1, that of the Pine ; 2, that of the OaJi; and 3, that of the Beech, which continues to the present day. The soil, in process of time, becomes exhausted of the elements more especially adapted to the nutrition of forests of one kind or another. The disappearance of this vegetation involves that of the species of animals which feed upon the foliage. The Cock of the Woods, which was common in Denmark in the Pine-period, no longer exists there. The discoveries of M. Tournal in the caverns of the Aude shows that at a certain epoch in the pre-historic period, man consumed for food the Stag, Reindeer, Wild Goat, Eelix nemoralis, Sj-c. At the present day the Stag is no longer found in the south of France, the Reindeer has retired to the Arctic regions of Europe, the Wild Goat is scarcely represented by rare descendants on the lofty peaks of the Alps and Pyrenees, whilst Helix nemoralis has entirely disappeared with the forests from that part of the country. 54 ORIGINAL AETICLES. Following the rapid descent of the road from Aurignac to Bou- logne for about a mile, (1600 metres), the traveller reaches a point whence, on the opposite side of the valley, the low ridge of the mountain of Fajoles does not rise more than about twenty metres above the stream of the Eodes. On the northern slope of this eminence may be seen an escarpment, more or less natural, of the nummulitic rock (calcaire a melonies of M. Leymerie), and on the side of this a sort of niche, or shallow gi-otto, whose arched entrance looks to the N.W. The floor of this excavation, which is now completely cleared out, is not more than 2i metres in horizontal depth, with an extreme width of 3 metres at the en- trance. It is situated about 13 or 14 metres above the level of the stream. Outside the grotto, and a little below it, the calcareous soil forms a sort of platform, some metres in extent, slightly inclined towards the brook, and leaning on the south against the escarpment of the rock, the perpendicularity of which had, probably, originally been in part produced by the hand of man. Ten years ago the existence of this cavern was unknown. Its approaches were concealed under a heap, or talus, formed of frag- ments of the rock and vegetable soil, probably throvsm down solely by atmospheric agency. The place, nevertheless, was often resorted to by the sportsmen of the neighbourhood, owing to the circumstance that at a point in the outer heap of earth, pretty nearly on a level with the vault of the grotto, there was a hole, into which the rabbits, when hotly pursued, were accustomed to take refuge. A labouring man, J. B. Bomiemaison, employed in the breaking of stones for the repair of the neighbouring road, was led to intro- duce his hand and arm into this hole, whence, to his great surprise, he brought out a bone of considerable size. At once suspecting the existence of a subterranean cavity, and cm'ious to find out what it contained, he dug away part of the talus below the opening. At the end of some hours he came upon a large slab of stone, of no great thickness, and placed vertically in front of an arched opening, wbich it closed completely, leaving only a hole, resorted to by the rabbits, imcovered. Wlien tliis slab was removed, he noticed a cer- tain quantity of bones and skulls, whicli he at once recognized as human. The bones, which belonged to several skeletons, were found partly imbedded in a loose soil, whicli might have been introduced into the sepulchre at the time of interment. This discovery of Bonnemaison's was quicldy noised abroad ; the curious in sucli matters flocked to the place, and various conjectures were formed to explain the occiuTence of sucb an abundance of human remains in a situation so remote from any actual habitation. The older inhabitants of the district recalled the circumstance that at a remote period, a band of coiners had been surprised in the exercise of their nefarious industry, in a solitary house at no great distance from the spot. This was held sufficient to justify the popular impres- sion that tliesc gentry had been also guilty of numerous murders, LAETET ON HUMAN BEMAINS. 55 tlie traces of which they had concealed by depositing the bodies of theii' victims in this cavity, whose existence was known only to themselves. In order to put a stop to all these conjectures, Dr. Amiel, at that time Mayor of Aurignac, caused all the human remains to be col- lected, and re-interred in the parish burial-ground. But previous to this translation of the relics, he ascertained, to his own satisfaction, by counting the number of certain homologous portions of the skeletons, that they must have belonged to 17 individuals. Some of the characteristic forms found among them appeared to him refer- rible to females ; whilst other portions, from their incomplete ossilica-^ tion, denoted the presence of young subjects below the age of puberty.* It should also be remarked, that among the human bones taken from the interior of the cavern, J. B. Bonnemaison distin- guished several teeth of large mammals, both carnivorous and her- bivorous. He also collected in the same situation, eighteen small discs, pierced in the centre, doubtless that they might be strmig together as a necklace or bracelet. These discs, which were of a whitish compact substance, fell iuto various hands; some w^ere sent, with some mammalian teeth, to IM. Leymerie, by M. Vieu, superin- tendent of roads and bridges at Aurignac, whose researches in this district of the department have afforded numerous and useful mate- rials for the study of the paleontology of the Haute- Garonne. Shortly afterwards M. Leymerie ti-ansmitted to me the mamma- lian teeth, with the information respecting them with which he had himself been furnished, viz., that they had been foiuid on the moun- tain of Pajoles. Amongst them I recognized the molars of the Horse, Ox, (Aurochs ?) a canine tooth of the Hyena, another canine which appeared to me to belong the gi'eat cave Felis, two other teeth of a smaller carnivore, probably a Fox, and, lastly, the point of a Stages antler. Subsequently, on my journey to Toulouse, M. Leymerie showed me the small perforated discoid bodies, which had been sent to him at the same time A\dth the above teeth. The hurried examiuation that we made of these objects, whose origin had not then been indi- * According to the report of Bonnemaison, the mass of human bones, at the time they were removed from the cavern, included two enth'e crania, but when M. Amiel reached the spot these were no longer so. The operations of removal, trans- port, and second iulimnation, would necessarily occasion other alterations in bones rendered so fragile from their antiquity; but nevertheless the examination of these remains, such as they were, appeared to be very desirable. Measurements taken fi-om the bones of so many individuals, would have afforded, to some extent, the means of deducing the average stature and proportions of this unknown race ; and from the fragments of the face and skull, indications of some value, respecting the general form of the head, might also have been obtained. But unfortunately no one at Aurignac, not even the sexton, after an interval of eight years, retained any recollection of the precise spot at which these human remains had been deposited in a common trench. 56 OBIGINAL ARTICLES. cated with sufficient precision, did not allow of our ascertaining tlie material of which they were composed, nor of forming any opinion with respect to the pui'poses for which they might be intended. But M. Leymerie having been so obliging as to forward them to me at Paris, through our common friend M. Collomb, I have been enabled to determine their structure, which appears to me to be analogous with that of certain marine shells. The slightly convex face of some of the discs, though worn and half polished by artificial rubbing, still affords some traces of the projecting cost(B of the shell of a species of Cardium. My first surmise to this effect has since been confirmed by the stricter examination, which M. Deshayes, at my request, has been good enough to make of one of these bodies.* * M. de Vibrayc has recently obtained twenty -four s)nall perforated discs of tlie same material and form. These were found in a cromlech in the dejiartment of the Lozere about five miles from Meude ; tlii.s cromlech, which had probably been used as a sepulchre, contained human remains, together with some bones of animals of existing species. There were also found, at the same time and place, a long flint- knife, with some spear- and arrow-heads of the same material. These latter olijccts, from the finish of their manufacture, and the other accessories of the burial jilace, indicated an epoch far more recent than that of the Aurignac cavern. Perforated beads of the same form but in different materials, are not rare in the necklaces and other ornaments found amongst the Assyrian antiquities. It is well known, that at St. Achcul near Amiens, in the same diluvial beds that have furnished so many flint implements, there have also been collected a consider- able number of beads, mostly formed of the poly]iaries of Coscinopora (jlohdaris Beads of this kind, many of which are pierced artificially, are not rare in collections, and they may be seen in the Louvre, the Cluny Museum, and at tlie Jardin des Plantcs, alongside the flint implements bronglit from St. Achcul. I had noticed in the Assyrian Museum in the Louvre, similar beads which had been found in the excavations at Khorsabad, on the supposed site of the ancient Nineveh. Having obtained from M. Barbet de Jouy, one of the keepers of the Louvre, permission to make a closer comparison between the Khorsabad beads and others recently brought by M. de Vibraye from St. Acheul, we thought it better, in order to give an authoritative support to the surmise we had entertained, to refer the matter to M. ]VIilne-Ed wards, Member of the Institute and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. The resxdt of the examination made by this competent judge was to show an identity of form and species between at least one of the perforated corals brought from the ruins of Nineveh, and those found in the (Hluvium at St. Achcul. [These bead-like Foraminifera, Orhitollnn concava, according to Mr. Frcstwicli, (Phil. Trans. Vol. 150, p 290), occur abundantly in the Chalk, and they are found some whole and some perforated, so that the latter condition can no longer be regarded as artificial. — Eds.] M. de Longperricr had also pointed out to me a complete identity of form between the obsidian-knives of Mexico, and those of the same material found by M. Place in the foundations of Nineveh, where they had probably been deposited as a kind of votive offering. At the time of the conquest of Mexico, Fernando Cortcz obseiTcd that the native barbers cut the hair and beards of their customers with razors made of obsidian. Fragments of the same mineral and fashioned in a similar manner, have been collected on the field of Marathon, and may be seen in the Museum of Artillery, in the same glass cases with the flint arms of ancient Gaul. Thus wo perceive the same form cmploj'cd in the same manner, at extreme geographical distances apart, and at very considerable chronological intervals. " Man," says M. Troyon, (Habitations lacustres, &c.) " placed under analogous circumstances, acts in an analogous manner, irrespective of time or place." LAETET O^ HUMAN REMAINS. 57 All remembrance of Boimemaisou's discovery was nearly lost, when, passing through Anrignae in October, 1860, the circumstances attending it were related to me by M. Vieu, with details not before given, and which led me to decide upon visiting the place. I went there, accompanied by three workmen, one of whom was the original discoverer of the cave. The sepulchral vault, in the partially cleared state it had been left by him, was at that time, on the level of the floor, 2J metres deep, and 2| metres high, measured at the centre of the arched entrance, which, as has been before stated, looked towards the N.W. The accompanying wood-cut represents a section of this cavity, or grotto, as it was at the time of my visit, and before the removal of the layer B, composed of loose earth and fragments of rock, in which I still found several human bones imbedded, together with flint implements, worked portions of Reindeer's horn, and a consider- able number of mammalian bones, in a state, comparatively speaking, of remarkable nreservation. In the figure, the layer £ in the interior of the grotto is represented as continuous with the external layer C, in which the very numerous mammaUan bones were all found broken, or even comminuted, and moreover sometimes burnt or gnawed by cai'nivorous animals. When I inquired of Bonnemaison whether, at the time he discovered the cave, the continuity of the interior layer B with that on the exterior marked C, were not interrupted by the vertical stone slab, by which the entrance was closed, he was unable to give any positive reply. The two parallel dotted Hues therefore, indicating in F the place occupied by the slab, have been continued only to the siu'face of the layer as it existed at the time of my visit. If the stone slab had been preserved, it would have been sufiicient to put it in its original place to ascertain whether it extended below the level of the bone layer, but unfortimately Bonnemaison had found it convenient to break it up for road material. However this may be, the perfect state of preservation of the bones imbedded in the interior layer of the grotto, denotes that the carnivorous animals, the Hj'enas amongst 68 OEIOINAL ARTICLES, others, had at no time beeu able to get iu. It may be supposed that at each occasiou of a burial the slab was removed for the moment, and replaced as soon as the ceremony Avas finished. The most rational explanation that can be oflered of the presence of the remains of animals within the sepulchre is, that they had been introduced as part of the funeral rites, — a proceeding of which analogous instances may be found in many of the sepulchres of primordial times.* As regards the posture of the skeletons, and the direction in which they lay, I was imable to obtain any information from their discoverer. It is evident that the floor of the grotto was not wide enough to allow the bodies of seventeen indi\'iduals to be placed side by side in the extended posture, and that its height was insufficient to admit of their being heaped one upon another. But the semi- circular configuration of the sepulchre aftbrds good ground for the supposition that the attitude given to the bodies was that which is well known to have been adopted in many of the sepulchres of primi- tive times ; that is to say, with the body in a sitting or crouching posture, and bent downwards upon itself. This practice would not only economize the space occupied by each individual, but woidd also, according to some archaeologists, realize the symbolic thought of restoring to the earth, — our common mother, — the body of the man who had ceased to live, in the same^postiire that it had before his birth, in the bosom of his individual mother.f It is for this reason, that in the figure of the cavern I have represented three skeletons iu the crouching posture, warning the reader, at the same time, that the representation is altogether hypothetical. Having noted these particulars respecting the circumstances con- nected with the first discovery of the sepxdchre, I proceeded to the examination of the disturbed layer of loose earth remaining in it. The first strokes of the pickaxe disclosed a tooth and sevei-al human bones, after which was tui*ned up an implement or weapon, made of Stag's or Reindeer's horn, in the form of a slender tapering spike, about 9 inches long, and carefully rounded. The lower extreun'ty was about half-an-inch wide, and bevelled off on each side, as if in- tended to be fitted uito a handle ; the point was broken off and could not be recovered. Close to this were found half of a Horse's jaw- bone, some teeth of the Aurochs, the lower jaw of a lieindeer, and * This kind of votive oflerinp; is rcniarkcil in the sepulchral monuments of the so-temied Dniidical, or Celtic type, as well as in the more reccut tumuli of Gaul, both before and after its subjugatitni by Kome. I have even been able to trace, in a sepulchre evidently not more ancient than tlie 10th century of our era, a continu- ation of this ancient custom of burying witli the defunct his horse, arms, objects of att'cction, broken earthenware, trophies of the chase, and the bones of animals botli wild and domesticated. t This attitude of the body bent upon itself, has been noticed in most of the primordial sepultures of the north and centre of Europe, and it has been also observed in the foundations of Babylon. Diodorus Sicnlus informs us that it was ]iractised by the Troglodytes, a pastoral people of Ethiopia. In more recent times it is seen iu use among various peoples iu America, and some of the youth Sea Islauds. LAETET ON HUMAN EEMAINS, 59 gome entire bones of the great cave Bear, (Ursus spelwus),Yox, &e., &c. Outside the cave, where the heap of fallen earth D still re- mained, and whose upper border is indicated by a dotted line, I noticed, at the base, at E, a blackish layer, evidently composed of ashes, and of fragments of charcoal and of earth like the surrounding vegetable sod. On breaking with a hammer the surface of this layer of ashes and charcoal, I detached some taurine teeth (Aurochs), teeth of the lieindeer, and some fragments of bone, blackened by the action of fire. Upon this, the methodical and complete exploration of all the layers, more or less compact or loose, and both within and without the cave, was at once undertaken. The work, which was performed by intelligent men, and constantly under my own superintendence, was completed on two occasions, with an interval of several days. The following are the results obtained : — The lower layer E, composed of ashes and charcoal, taken as a start- ing point among such a complexity of circumstances as are evidenced in this locality, iudicates in reality the presence of man and the existence of a fire-place or hearth, around which it must be supposed he made his repasts. This hearth was several square metres in extent, and consti- tuted a sort of platform formed of the nummulitic rock, fi'agments of which had been laid so as to level the natural inequalities of the surface ; which here and there presented a good many ^•ery thin plates of fissile sandstone, most of which were reddened by the action of fire. The nearest locality at the present day, where this fissile stone is found, is a distance of some hundreds of metres on the other side of the valley, at the foot of the mountain of Portel. The layer of ashes and charcoal, whose proportionate thickness is exaggerated in the figure, was not in reaHty more than from six to eight inches thick, and it gradually thinned off towards the entrance of the grotto, into which it did not extend. There were found in it a very great number of teeth, principally of herbivorous animals, together Avith many hundi-eds of fragments of their bones. Some of the bones were carbonized, and others simply reddened from having been exposed to a low heat. The greater uiunber did not appear to have been subjected to the action of fire. The majority of the frag- ments were those of long bones having medullary cavities, and of tliese, almost aU appeared to have been broken in a uniform manner. A great many of those which had not been exposed to fire bore the marked impress of the teeth of a carnivorous beast, which had left only the thick and compact shafts of the great bones of the Aurochs and Rhinoceros. The discovery, among the very ashes of the fire, of the coprolites of the Hyaena showed that it was that powerful carnivore which had doubtless taken advantage of the absence of man to devour the remains of his repasts. It is also to the voracity of the Hyenas that we may attribute the almost complete absence, either on the hearth or in the ossiferous deposit about it, of the vertebras and other spongy portions of the herbivorous bones. 60 ORiaiNAL ARTICLES. Besides the peculiar mode in wliicli they are broken, denoting that it had been done for the piu'pose of extracting the marrow,* there may- be sometimes observed, on the siu'face of the bones, scratches and shallow cuts, which appear to have been caused by the edge of some instrument employed to remove the flesh. In fact, we collected among the very ashes on the hearth a hun- dred pieces of silex, some of no definite form, but the greater number fashioned after the type so imiversally met with and designated by archaeologists under the name of " knives." It would appear that a portion at least of these implements had been manufactured on the spot, as we found, in the neighbourhood of the hearth, the nuclei of the blocks from which splinters of various dimensions had been struck off. We also found, in the same situation, a stone of a circular form, flattened on two sides with a central depression on each, and constituted of a rock not found in this region of the Pyrenees, and which, from the explanation of its object given me by M. Steiuhauer, Conservator of the Ethnographic Museum at Cojienhagen, was used for renewing, by skilful blows, the edges of the flint knives. Tlie central depression on each flat side was intended for the fingers and thumb in the required manoeuvre.f We also procured from among the ashes two portions of silex broken so as to have niimerous facets, which have been regarded by archaeologists as missiles [sling- stones], and which are rendered more destructive by the numerous angles presented on the surface. Besides these flint arms and knives there were also found, both in the ashes and in the superjacent ossiferous layer, many other instruments of divers forms, and made for the most part of the more compact portion of the Reindeer's horn. Some of these are in the form of arrow-heads, simply lanceolate, and without vdngs or recur- rent barbs, such as are found in arrow-heads of a more recent period. All are broken immediately below the widened base of the lance-shaped portion. Some of these arrows appear to have been reddened by the action of fire, as if they had been left in the flesh of the animal when it Avas cookeni. One of the largest among them exhibits, on its two opjiosite surfices, some impressions in the form of a cross, which, though with some hesitation, may be regarded as having been caused by the teeth of a carnivorous animal in its endea- vours to draw the arrow from the wound (? ?). One of these bone- * Travellers relate that among people who live chiefly on the products of the chase, the maiTow of the bones of the Ilcrbivora is highly appreciated and sometimes reserved for the chiefs. Among the Laps and Grcenlauders the maiTow taken warm from the animal is held one of the greatest dehcacies, and is presented as a mark of honour, according to M. Morlot, to the \Tsitor and Government ofhccrs. — Morlot, Etudes geologico-archeologiqnes en Dancmarch et en Suisse- t lm])lemcnts for the same pui-j)ose have been figured in the " Atlas of Anti- quities of the Stone Age of Denmark," by M. Worsaae. M. Alphonse Milne- Ed\\ai-ds has also informed me that' he saw similar implements m one of the museums iu Holland recently viaitcd by him. LARTET ON KUMAlSr REMATlSrS. 61- implements, in the form of a very slender and sharp-pointed bodkin, appears to have been made from the horn of the Roebuck, which is far more compact and harder, than the horn of the Stag or the Eein- deer. It is in a very good state of preservation, and would still serve to make holes in the skins of animals for the purpose of joining them together vnth a coarse kind of suture. This implement was found in the ossiferous layer above the ashes. Another instrument, also of Eoebuck horn, has an equally sharp point, but is not so tapering that it could serve for a needle or awl, and it might be asked whether it could not have been employed for the piu^pose of tatooing (?). Other implements of various dimensions and in the form of a thinnish blade, represent, according to M. Steinhauer, the polishers, made of Keindeer-horn, used by the Laplanders to smooth the coarse sutures of their skin garments. In support of this supposition it may be noticed that on one of these instruments, the marks of repeated friction may be observed on both sides. Another instrument, of pretty nearly the same shape, appeared to me intended for quite a difterent purpose. On one side, the surface presents all the roughness of the Reindeer's horn, but it has neverthe- less been carefully polished, and it is sensibly cui'ved and concave in a longitudinal direction. The ojjposite side is convex and poHshed throughout. Another blade of Eeindeer horn which is unfortunately broken at each end, exhibits, on one side which is carefully polished, two series of equidistant transverse lines, separated by an interval in the middle of the fragment. On each edge, also, may be observed a series of shallow notches at pretty regular distances apart. Tliese marks and notches suggest the notion that they might be intended to represent numeral signs expressive .of various values, or perhaps belonging to distinct objects. Another portion, of which I am unable to explain the use, is a por- tion of Eeindeer's horn, in the middle of which, at the point where an antler sprang from the stem, is an oval hole or perforation, whose side is marked with grooves resembling, except that they do not run in a spiral direction, the worm of a screw. This fragment was found in the layer of ashes. The handle of some imjjlement made of Eeindeer's horn was found in the interior of the cave, beneath the space where the bodies had been deposited, and in close juxtaposition with several flint imple- ments, worked Avith more care than those left in the fireplace ; a circumstance leading to the supposition that aU these choicer objects had formed a sort of votive offering. The handle in qviestion pre- sents, near the base, the mark of the place whence the lowest, or brow antler had been removed, in order to render the gi'asp more convenient; higher up, is the truncated base of the second antler, which is hollowed out, for some luiknown purpose ; and at the end of the stem portion, is the principal opening for the fixing of the 62 OKTOryAL AETICLES. weapon into the handle, and which is continued to the base of the horn. One of the flint implements above alluded to is a knife manufactured with particular care, and appearing never to have been used. One of the most curious of the relics discovered in this exploration is the canine tooth of a young Great Cave Jiear (JJrsiis s^elceus). Tlie cro'5\"n has been entirely deprived of enamel, afterwards thinned on the two sides, and a groove running along the concave border simulates a sort of buccal commissure, or the opening of a bird's beak ; an oblong fossette visible above and a little behind this, in the situation that would have been occupied by the eve, and surmounted by a superciliary line, completed an ill-defined resemblance to some animal fonn, perhaps a bird's head. The maker, or, as one might say, the artist, who certaijily had at his disposal large canines of the same species of Bear, chose that of a young individual, no doubt because the still existing pulp cavity enabled him to complete the perforation with less trouble. The tooth, in fact, is perforated ft-om end to end, so as to admit of its being suspended by some means. It was foimd very near the entrance of the cave, and exactly at the spot where Bonnemaison, after the removal of the stone slab, had subsequently collected the rubbish from the interior. It had probably been originally interred with one of the bodies as a token of afiection, or as an amulet, and was overlooked when all the human remains were removed byM. Amiel.* It has been remarked that some of the flint implements must have been manufactured on the spot. The same may be said of some articles in Eeindeer horn ; for we collected, partly among the ashes, partly in the superjacent layer of rubbish, the remains of the horns of that animal, from which the antlers and other portions, likely to be made useful as implements, had been removed. The experience acquired by this primitive people had even thus eariy taught them that the shed horns, which at the present day are preferred by cutlers, are better nourished and more compact than those taken in the growing state from the head of the liring animal. A single horn of a yoimg indi^ idual was found, which had been cut off immediately after the death of the animal, doubtless that its soHtaiy point might be used. It was still attached by the base to the frontal bone, and at and below the seat of fracture the striped lines of numerous cuts made with the blunt edge of a flint tool may readily be perceived. ^ijnong the asihes we also found the disjointed laminae of the molars of the Elephant (S. primigenius). In these laminae, from which the enamel is detached, the ivory appears to have been very much al- tered by the action of fii'e. It is impossible to sui-mise the purpose for * In the sepulchres of the ancient Livonians, we are infonncd bv M. Frederick Troyon, that pierced teeth of the Bear are found, which had been worn no doubt as charms or amulets. LAETET O^' nrilAN BEMArN'S. 63 wliicli these were luteudecl ; but tliere can be no doubt tbat tlie teeth had been thus disjointed piu-posely, for in the rubbish above the ashes we found the basal portions of two molars of the Elephant from which it was clear that the upper portion, in which the laminae are longer and ^-ider, had been detached. Particles of charcoal are still adhe- rent to one of these fragments. This is all that we discovered of Elephant's remains.* The portion of the ossiferous rubbish B, comprised between the fii'e- place, or inferior layer of ashes and charcoal, and the rubbly mass of vegetable earth above, which, before Bonnemaison's discovery, con- cealed the entrance of the cave, was nearly a metre in thickness. In it were found, as in the ash-layer, many bones of Herbivora, always broken and comminuted in the same manner, and some also gnawed bv Hvjenas. In the same sitiiation, likewise, we met with scattered particles of charcoal ; the bones of the Carnivora were tolerably abundant. These were often entire, and, when broken, the fracture did not present the uniform character so remarkable in the herbivorous bone ; and none of the carnivorous remains were gnawed, or exhibited any marks of the teeth of the Hyfena.f ISTor on these bones could any of the scratches or incisions made with cutting instruments be perceived, which are so often noticed in the herbivorous bones. J In explanation also of the presence in this situation of a considerable quantity of the remains of Carnivora of different sizes, it may be suggested that these animals served prmcipaUy to furnish skius and furs for clothing and the protection of man against the weather. Nevertheless it should not be forgotten that in the interior of the cave, among the human skeletons and in the soil beneath them, the * It may be asked, -nhy, if Elephants existed at that period at the foot of the Pyrenees, arrows or other implements made of the ivory of then- tusks are not met with. " The Ethiopians in the army of Xerxes," says Herodotus, " used long arrows made of cane, pointed, instead of iron, with a sharp stone. They had also javelins armed with the horns of the Koc-deer (?) pointed and fashioned Hke the head of a lance." Elephants nevertheless existed in Ethiopia, as is proved by the circumstance that ceitain nations in that country were termed Elephantophagi. The Phoenicians, moreover, fetched ivory fiora Ethiopia, with which they traded amongst other nations. But the Ethiopians, like the sub-pyrenean people, had the common sense to perceive that ivory was more difficult to work, more brittle, and less durable than the horns of the various species of Cci-viis. t This circumstance, made me think that in the wild state the Hyena might have a repugnance lo feeding on the tlesh of Carnivora ; but M. Jules VeiTcaux who, when at the Cape of Good Hope, fed domesticated Hyienas with the flesh of the dog, has assured me that llyajnas when retiring in troops into caverns, sometimes devour that of their comrades who may fall sick. Mr. Brown, in his journey to Darfour, relates that when an individual in a troop of Hyaenas is wounded, the rest fall upon and devour him. Dr. Buckknd also was of opinion that in the ossiferous caverns in England, even the bones of the Hytena had been gnawed by their congeners. t In this respect, however, an exception must be made in the case of two frag- ments of a young Ursus spelaus, on one of which more especially (part of the pelvis) may be seen numeroiis streaks, which it might be supposed had been produced by the repeated action of a tool employed to remove the flesh. 64 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. bones of Carnivora were tlie most numerous ; whence it may be supposed tliat tliese animals entered largely into the funeral rites, of which analogous instances may be seen in sepiilchres of a more recent period.* One cii'cumstance struck me as remarkable : that although we collected a gi-eat many lower jaws, almost entire, of Carnivora, and, in the interior of the cave, some of herbivorous animals, not a single upper jaw in the entire state, nor any considerable portion of the cranium of any of these animals were met with. Must we conclude that the crania in general had been broken to pieces for the extraction of the brain ? The North American Indians, accordmg to Hearne, as quoted by M. Morlot, prepared the skins of animals with a lye composed of the brain and marrow. " The Samoiedes," says PaUas, " split up the bones of the Eeindeer, in order to devoiir the marrow quite fresh and raw. Their favourite food consists of the brain taken raw and steaming from the skull ; and they also devour in the raw state, the young horna of the Eeindeer, when they are beginning to sprout." In the soil within the cave at JB, were discovered, as has been said, several human bones which had been left buried in it, after the removal which had been effected, several years before, of the skeletons interred in the burial ground of Aurignac. It was in the same situation that were found the most highly finished flint implements and the finest specimen of worked Eeindeer's horn, as well as an almost entire horn of that animal. The only bones of Herbivora that we obtained in a good state of preservation, were also procured in the same deposit. The carnivorous bones constituted the majority, and amongst these, those of the Fox were the most numerous, after which came those of the Great Cave Bear ( Ursus spelesus). Of this species, one specimen must have been introduced entire, since we found in very close contiguity, the various bones of its skeleton. Amongst the individuals of this great species of Bear whose remains had been conveyed into the cave by the hand of man, one must have been a female in an advanced stage of gestation, for in the loose earth out- side the cave we met with several remains of a foetus nearly at the period of birth. "Whilst the bones of the Herbivora found outside the cave were all broken and comminuted, burnt and gnawed, both those found in the ashes, as Avell as tliose lying in the layer of earth above the ash-layer, the bones found in the interior had, on the contrary, been well preserved, and, in particular, showed no mark of their having been attacked by the teeth of Carnivora. "Whence it may be concluded that these parts of animals had been introduced into the sepulchre for a special purpose ; and, at the same time, that the entrance had been constantly closed against the Hyaenas. * Tlie Laplanders of the ])resent day are not so dainty as we may suppose the aborigmos of Aqiiitainc to have been, for, according to J. Acerbi, (Voyage au C;ip Nord) they cat inditi'crcntly the Bear, Wolf, Fox, Otter, and Seal. LARTET 0?r nTTMA?T EE1MATK9. 65 Tlie general assemblage of the Mammalian remains collected at Aurignac, shows that the Carnivora, in number of species, were almost equal to the Herbivora. Subjoined are lists of both, with an approximate valuation of the number of individuals referrible to each species. 1. TJrsus spelceu9 2. TJrsus Arctos ? 3. Heles Taxus 4. Putoriiis vulgaris 5. Felis spelcsa 6. Felis Catus ferus 7. Hi/cena spelcea 8. Canis Lupus 9. Canis Vulpes 1. Caeitivgra. Number of individuals. 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 3 18 — 6 — 2 — 6 — 20 1 12 — 15 1 1 1 3 — 4 10 — 15 1? 15 2. Heebiyoba. 1. FlepJias primigenius, two molars. 2. Rhinoceros f ichor inus 3. Equu^ Gaballus 4. Equus Asinus? 5. Sus Scrqfa, two incisors. 6. Cervus Elephas 7. Meg ac eras hihernicus 8. C. Capreolus 9. C. Tarandus 10. Bison europceus Among the Carnivora, Felis spcslea was represented only by a single canine and a premolar bearing the mark of a fracture caused by some violence. From this it may be presumed that the body of the animal was never conveyed to the spot, and that the teeth had been brought with a special intention, and the rather so because both were collected within the sepulchre, and one of them (the canine sent to M. Leymerie) beyond (a travers) the human bones at the first discovery of the place by Bonnemaison. As the two molars of the Elephant are also the only relics of that species, their being brought by man to the place where they were found, may also be referred to some customary purpose. And the same may be said of the two incisors of the Wild Boar, likewise the only relics of that species discoverable among such a considerable heap of bones.* * In the lower grotto of Massat, another ancient station, where man has left mmierous relics of his feasts, the Boar is also represented only by a single molar. Certain nations of antiquity had, at an early epoch, a marked repiignance to the N. H. K.— 1862. F 66 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.. I have omitted to enumerate in the list of Herbivora two half- jaws of a Field Mouse (Campagnol), and the calcaneum of a Hare, which may hare been accidentally introduced independently of human agency. It is well known that an aversion to the flesh of the Hare, is still more general than that against pork. The Hare was regarded as impure by several of the nations of antiquity. Caesar (Z)e Bell. Gallic, lib. V. c. 12) states that among the inhabitants of Britain the use of its flesh as food was forbidden.* The Laplanders at the present day always regard it with horror, and among several nations of our part of Europe the flesh of the Hare is still despised. The remains of the Hare and Eabbit are very abundant in the ossi- ferous breccias and in many of the caves in the Pyrenees ; but I have met with no traces of their existence in the lower grotto of Massat, nor have their remains been noticed in other caverns which appear to have been inhabited exclusively by man. The bones of the Hare are not mentioned among those of the numerous animals recognized in the Danish Kitchen-middens,t nor have any been found below the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland belonging to the various ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. With respect to the Horse, it appears from the broken and comminuted state of his bones, resembling that in which those of the ruminants are found, that his flesh entered largely into the food of the aborigines of Aurignac. Nevertheless, at Massat, a station a little less ancient, the bones of the Horse are entirely ab- sent, Avhilst in the cavern of Bise, which was used as a habitation by man at a period when the iieindeer still lived in the south of Trance, the broken bones of the Horse were, according to M. Tournal, equally abundant with those of the rimiinants. The Sarmatians, says an ancient historian, Avere distinguished from other nations, and in particular from the Celts, by their taste and predilection for the blood and flesh of the Horse, and for Mare's milk. The Horse is wanting in the Stone age in Switzerland and in Denmark. Never- theless, in Switzerland, in the 10th century of oiu' era, horse-flesh was served at the table of the monks of St. Gall, at a period, when amongst other European nations its use as food was forbidden under pain of excommunication. flesh of the Wild Boai- or of the Pig. Their flesh, it is well known, was excluded from the diet of the Egyptians and of the Jews, who, nevertheless, had domesti- cated the species. The Scythians, according to Herodotus, abstained fi-om the flesh of the Hog, and the Gallo-Greeks held it in equal aversion. How can the fact be explained, then, that the ancient Gauls, who had affinities with both those people, used pork as a considerable part of their food? Observations made in the ancient stations of the aborigines of Denmark, and beneath the lacustrine habitations of the Stone period in Switzerland, have shown that those primitive races also fed largely upon the flesh of the Wild Boar. [• Though he states, nevertheless, that the Britons bred the Hare, Fowl, and Goose, though forbidden to use them as food, " animi, voluptatisquo causa."] [f Vid. Nat. Hist. Rev. 1861, p. 489.] LAKTET O'S HUMAN EEMAINS, 67 The Ehinoceros appears also to have been eaten by the Pyrenean aborigines. Some molar teeth, and a certain number of bones belonging to a young individual, were found at Aurignac in the layer of earth above the ashes. All the vertebrae and the spongy parts of the long bones had disappeared, devoured without doubt by the Hyaenas ; but the thick and compact portions of the shafts of the long bones were left. They are broken in the same manner as those of the other Herbivora, and several fragments still bear the traces of cutting instruments. Another proof, moreover, that when the carcase of this young Ehinoceros was brought there, it had been recently slain, is afforded by the circumstance that its bones, after they had been broken by man, had afterwards been gnawed by the Hyffinas, which would not have been the case had they not been still fresh and filled with theii' gelatinous juices.* The rarity of the common Deer and of the Irish Elk, represented at Aurignac, each by the remains of a single individual, might be explained perhaps by the great abundance of those of the Eeindeer. We know that in a wild state, antijjathies exist between certain closely allied species, or sometimes between species belonging to the same genus, which lead them to inhabit perfectly distinct districts. The Aurochs and the Eeindeer, then, are the species which have figured the most often in the feasts of whose relics we find only what was spared by the Hysenas. The situation of the hearth, on a plat- form overlooking the valley and stream of the Eode, allow also of the supposition that a great part of the bones might have been thrown to the bottom of the valley, whence they wovild afterwards be removed by the current of water, or decomposed by atmospheric agencies. The long bones of these ruminants, so rich in marrow, have all been broken for its extraction. Not one has been forgotten ; every bone, down to the first phalanges of the Stags and Eeindeer, which, like the long bones, contain a medullary cavity, has been carefully opened. But the way in which this has been done is neither so methodical nor so elegant as that noticed in the Danish kitchen- middens, the bones in which have aU been split with remarkable dexterity, in such a way as to expose, at a single blow, the whole of the marrow they contained: as may be seen for instance in the cannon-bone, or metatarsus, of the Aurochs, and of the Deer. At Aurignac, as well as at Massat, this mode of fracture is rather rare, * Several African nations eat the flesh of the Ehinoceros, and amongst others the Hottentots. " The ShangaUas," says Bruce, " are very fond of its tiesh, although it is veiy hard, almost tasteless, and witli a strong musky smell; tlie most delicate part in their estimation is the sole of the foot, which like that of the Elephant and Camel, is of a cartilaginous and soft substance." According to M. Boitard (Diet. Univ. d'Hist. Nat) the Indians hunt the Rhinoceros for their horns, and to eat their flesh. The Chinese are of opinion that after swallows-nests, the eggs of the lizard, and puppies, there is nothing so delicate as the tail of the Ehinoceros, and a kind of jelly made from the skin of its belly. 58 OEIGINAL ARTICLES. and, in general, badly executed. This may be ovring perhaps to the want of appropriate tools, which have not been found at either place, whilst the Danish aborigines were provided with them in abundance. At Aurignac, therefore, and also at Massat, the long bones are rarely split longitudinally ; sometimes the ends have been broken off, but more often the bones appear in some way to have been broken and reduced to fragments by blows from a stone ; and in these two situations we have found, in the neighbourhood of the remains of the banquet, the blocks and pebbles, which may have served for this operation. It may be asked, how is it, that with arms in appearance so in- efficient as those we have described, the aborigines of ancient Aqui- tania ventured to attack animals of the size of the Great Cave Bear, Ehinoceros, &c. ?* It may be presumed, that, like the ancient Grermani spoken of by Cfesar, the primiti\e inhabitants of the Pyrenees were acquainted with the art of constructing snares for these great animals, and of catching them in pits, concealed under the leaves and branches of trees. And besides this, their accurate knowledge of the most vul- nerable points in the bodies of the animals, and the precision of their aim, either with the arrow or dart, might to a certain extent com- pensate for the imperfection of their rude weapons.f Such is the general statement of the observations it was possible to make during the complete and careful exploration of the Aurignac station. The circumstances to which they relate are complex ; and their succession also indicates a considerable lapse of time. The first traces of living creatures met with in the loose and, speaking geologically, comparatively recent deposits, are those of man, proving that he had made a fireplace on the platform outside the little cave, whilst the thickness of the layer of ashes upon this site shows that it was inhabited for a long tune, or, at any rate, that it was frequently visited. The complete absence of any trace of fire in the interior of the grotto, and the state of comparative preservation of the bones found * In spite of all the attention which I have devoted to the examination of the bones found at Am-i<;iiac, and to the other circnnistantial evidences afforded at that place, I have failed to delect the faintest indication of the existence of the JJog, that habitual companion of man in the chase, in all climates and in cveiy state of bar- barism. Under the piles belonging to the stone age in Switzerland, the remains of a diminutive race of Dogs have'been met with. In studying the fauna of the Danish kitchen-middens, Prof Stcenstruj) lias satisfied himself, from the way in which certain bones have been gnawed, that tlic Dog must have been the latest companion of the aborigines, and he has even fuund reason to believe it may sometimes have been eaten by them. At Massat (Ariege), a station far more recent than that of Aurio-nac, I have myself fancied that I could perceive indications of the presence of the Dog, from the wav in which some of the herbivorous Ixmes had been gnawed. t The Shangallas, 'according to Bruce, kill tlie Rhinoceros with the worst arrows it is jiossible for a people making use of arms at all to have; and they flay it after- wards with knives no better than their arrows. LARTET ON HUMAN REMAINS . 69 tliereiu, denote that the cave, closed against all access from the ex- terior, must have been consecrated to human burials. The fragmentary condition of the bones of certain animals, the modeia winch they are broken, the marks of the teeth of the Hy.Tna on bones necessarily broken in their recent condition, even the dis- tribution of the bones and their significant consecration, lead to the conclusion that the presence of these animals, and the deposition of all these remains, are due solely to human agency. Neither the inclination of the ground, nor the surrounding hydrographical condi- tions, allow us to suppose that the remains could have been brought where they are found by natiu^al causes. The large amount of the remains of animals which had served as human food, and their presence at different levels, would indicate that successive assemblages had gathered at this spot. These assemblages probably took place on each occasion of the burial of the various indivi- duals interred ui the grotto. And it is highly probable also that the station ceased to be frequented when the sepulchral cave, being fuUy tenanted, would no longer afford space for further inhumations. The gentle and prolonged action of simple atmospheric agencies, would be sufficient, in course of time, to account for the detachment of fragments from the escarpment of the adjacent rock, and the gradual accumulation of loose fallen earth, by which the site of the fire-place outside, and the slab closing the opening of the sepulchral cave, would be entu-ely covered. The antiquity of the sepulchre cannot be ascertained either from tradition or liistory, nor from numismatic data, no document of this kind relating to it having been met with. Regarding the svibject archseologically, we perceive, in the ab- sence of any kind of metal, and the common employment of imple- ments and weapons of flint and bone, sufficient indications that the station of Aurignac should be referred to that ancient period of pre- historic times, denominated by antiquaries of the present day, — the age of Stone. Palseontologically, the human race of Aurignac belongs to the remotest antiquity, to which, up to the present time, the existence of man or the vestiges of his industry have been traced. This race, in fact, was e^ddently contemporary with the Aurochs, Reindeer, Grigantic Elk, Eliinoceros, Hyaena, &c. ; and, what is more, with the Great Cave Bear (17. spelcBus), which would appear to have been the ear- liest to disappear in the group of great mammals, generally regarded a-s characteristic of the last geological period.* But, it will be said, how does it happen, if the sepulchre of * The chemical examination by M. Delesse of the Anrignac bones, fiimishes a further excellent means for determining the question of contemporaneity. The respective analyses wliich he has made demonstrate that the bones of the Reindeer, Rhinoceros, Aurochs, &c. have retained precisely the same proportion of nitrogen, as the human bones from the same locality. 70 Oeioinal aeticles. Aurignac is to be referred to a period, coeval with the most ancient geological deposits in which the products of human industry have been foiuid, — the diluvial beds of St. Acheul and of Abbeville, — that the violent phenomena of that diluvian period, and the great cataclysm* connected with those beds, have not affected the original conditions of this cavern ? It is obvious, in fact, that nothing has been disturbed, and that, not only have a simple slab of stone a few centimetres in thickness, and a thin covering of loose earth, sufficed to preserve intact the sepulchre itself, but also that outside the cave, the relics of the funeral repasts and the various implements and arms left by the human inliabitants have not been disturbed. It has been observed above that, from its isolated position in the mountain range of Aurignac, the mountain of Fajoles is completely protected from the streams and torrents of the surroimding country. Nevertheless, upon looking at the geological map of Trance, we find tliat the colour indicating the great alluvial deposits of the Garonne, Adour, &c.,t is wanting in the interval between the little valleys which connuence on tlie plateau of Lanemezan. A very slight elevation of the borders of this plateau has been sufilcient to protect the whole of the intermediate region, (more than 200 square leagues.) within which are comprised tiie district of Aui-ignac, from the invasion of this diluvium or Pyrenean drift. * I am here obliged to repeat what I have ah-cady said elsewhere: viz., that the grand words, revolution of the (/lobe, catachjum, iiniversal pirturhation, yeneral ca- tastrophes, S,-c., have been introduced by a sort of abuse into tlie technical language of Science, seeing that they tend to give an exaggerated significance to phenomena, ■which geographically have been very limited in extent. These phenomena, how- ever stupendous they may appear to us, as manifested witliin the limits of our sensible horizon, are reduced to very little when brought down by actual calculation to their relative importance as regards the whole surface of the globe. Evciything, moreover, indicates tliat the successive production of these partial accidents forms part of the nonual conditions of the course of nature, and that the great harmony seen in the ))hysical and organic evolutions on the surface of the eai'th, has in no case been aifected by them. Aristotle full\' comi)rchended those alternating movements of the land, which at several intervals have changed the relations of continents and seas. He also reduced to its regional projiortions tlie deluge of Deucalion, so embelhshcd and magnified by the fictions of poetry. This great naturalist appears to have been obliged to combat the fantastic conceptions of the revolutionist philosophers of his time; and the rude apostrophe which he addressed to them, " ridiculum cnim est, ]iroptcr parvas et moinentaneas pernnitationes, moverc ipsum totum." (Meteorol. 1. i. c 2.), might well, after tAvo thousand years, be applied to some among us, geologists and paleontologists of the present day. f These alluvial beds or diluvium occupying the bottom of the valleys of the Garonne and of the Adour, should not be confounded with the pebbles and argillaceous deposits, lying at a higher level on terraces more or less continuous, ordinarily on the left s'ide of the course of the rivers. These deposits, in which the granitic, ophitic, and other feldspathic pebbles, are almost always in a decomposed fr'tatc, belong to a more ancient period, or that of the original excavation of the valleys. At the l)Ottom of the valleys of the Garonne and of the Adour, the granitic, and other pebbles of the Pyrenean drift, are numerous and perfectly preserved. None of the kind arc met with in the little valleys descending from the plateau of Lanemezan. LAETET ON HUMAN EEMAINS. 71 In the valley of the G-aronne, the Pyrenean drift is the geological or synchronal equivalent of the diluvium, of the Seine and of the diluvial deposits of Amiens, Abbeville, &c., because it is in these alluvial beds, that are found the remains of Eleplias primigenius, Bliino- ceros tichorinus, and other species regarded as characteristic of the diluvimn. But tliis phenomenon of torrential recrudescence, which has pro- duced the diluvium, and whose cause must be sought in a sudden return to regional conditions of extreme temperature, has been manifested, only to a comparatively very trifling extent, in all the valleys descending from the plateau of Lanemezan. It is not astonish- ing therefore, to find that the sepulchre of Aurignac, if it existed at that time, should not have suifered any damage from the efiect of the great floods of the period, seeing that, from its com^jarative altitude, it was placed beyond their reach. I would, nevertheless, go farther, and say that viewed simply under the palseontological relations manifested in it, the sepulchre of Aurignac claims a very high comparative antiquity. In fact, the Great Cave Bear, which we there behold evidently cotemporary with man, has not, so far as I know, yet been found in France in the diluvium. It is true, that it has been mentioned in a list which has several times been reproduced, of the fossil Mammals discovered in the diluvial beds of Abbeville ; but I have in vain tried to get at the source of the methodical determination upon which this statement rests, and from all that I have seen of its fossil remains the Bear, either from the valley of the Somme, or from the environs of Paris, belongs to a species, or to more than one species, very certainly distinct from Ursus spelijeus. In the centre of Prance, and in England, all the 'remains of the latter species, not foimd in caverns, come from deposits, regarded by geologists as more ancient than the diluvium. It will, doubtless, be objected to this, that the remains of Ursus spelcBus occur very abundantly in most of the caverns of the con- tinent, and even in some of those in England ; but, at the same time, it must not be forgotten that the date of the filling of these caverns is evidently to be placed beyond the epoch assigned by geologists to the diluvial phenomena, because in several of these caverns, at any rate, the remains of Mammals are met with, which are sometimes included in the lists of species referred to the latter phases of the tertiary period. We see then, that if we rely solely upon the consideration of the palseontological concomitances, the result we should arrive at would be, that the sepulchre of Aurignac should be referred, together with all the circumstances accompanying it, to an epoch anterior to the diluvium properly so termed. In confining the force of this remark simply within the limits of its inductive value, I do not think I am losing sight of the reserve with which new propositions should be introduced, when they as yet repose only on negative observations. 72 OKiaiNAL AETICLES. YII._The Sumatean Elephant. By Prof. H. Sclilegel. [The following translation from tlie Dutch, of a pa])er read by Prof. H. Sehlegcl, before the Eoyal Academy of Sciences of Holland,* gives some fui-ther details re.^ipecting the Sumatran Elephant. This species was distinguished by Temminck some years ago, from the Elephant of Continental India, and proposed to be called U I epJi as sumatranus,-\ but is hardly known to Naturalists of this country, except from the short notice of it communicated by the late Prince Charles Bona- parte, to one of the meetings of the Zoological Society of London, in 18i9.:— P. L. S.] It is well known that Sumatra is the only island of the Indian Archipelago, where Elephants are found "udld. Magelhaens has in- formed us, that the Elephants which he saw in Borneo, were intro- duced there, and that the animal is as little indigenous to that island as to Java. So long as all living Elephants were treated of as belonging to one species, no one thought of comparing them together ; and even after Cuvier had pointed out that the Elephant of Africa was ^-ery different from that of India, yet the opinion remained that all the Asiatic Elephants constituted but one sj^ecies, though, as we shall presently show, the examples on which Cuvier established his Weplias africamis, differed specifically inter se. This idea, indeed, had gone so far that no one took the trouble to examine further the Elephants, which were brought alive from time to time from Sumatra to Java, and there kept in a half-domestic state, but people were content to refer them to the so-called Indian or Asiatic Elephant, to which also, according to Cuvier, the Ceylonese Elephant belongs. As, however, nothing is proved by a negative, and it is of great importance in a large Museum to obtain illustrations of the Eaunas of different countries, I never ceased to urge my predecessor, Heer Temminck, to obtain specimens of the Sumatran Elephant for the Eoyal Museum. In August, 1845, I was fortunate enough to be gratified in this respect, several examples of Elephants from the dis- trict of Palembang in Sumatra, having been liberally forwarded to the Museum, by his Excellency the Baron J. C. Baud— at that time Governor of the Dutch possessions in India. As I was unpacking lliom it appeared to me that they differed in several respects from the Elephant of Bengal. I occupied myself, therefore, with draAv- ing up tlie characters of these two animals, compared with those of the African Elephant, and gave the results to Heer Temminck ; * Sec Vcrslagen en ^Mcdedeclingen der Koninlilijke Academie van Weteu- scliappcn, Afd. Niituiirkundc, 1861, p. 101. •[• See his " Coup d'ocil sur les possesions Nederlandaises dans les Indes Ori- cntales." Vol. II. p 91. % See I'loc. Zool. Soc. 1849, p. 144. THE SUMATRAN ELEPU.VXT. 73 wliich lie afterwards piiblislied,* calling the new species by the name Elephas sumatramis. Since that period, several other examples of the Elephant h'ving in Sumatra have been brought to the Netherlands, so that I have had the opportunity of examining them. Amongst these were seven skele- tons, of which throe are still in the Royal Museum, several skulls, a young specimen of about three feet high also now in the Museum, and a living animal about six feet high now in the Zoological Grardeus, at Amsterdam. All these specimens exhibited alike the characters, in which they differed from such examples of the so-called Indian Ele- phant, as I have examined. I say the so-called Indian Elephant, because it has not yet been settled to which species we should apply this name. The name is generally given to that species of Elephant which has been brought from Continental India, and particularly, as it appears, from Bengal to Europe. This practice we have followed, but we must never- theless guard ourselves from believing that this was exactly the species which Cuvier described under the name JEleplias indicus. Cuvier assigns to his E. indicus twenty dorsal vertebrje, and conse- quently a like number of pairs of ribs. This would lead us to believe that Cuvier's determination was made upon a skeleton of the species which lives in Sumatra, and not upon one of the Bengalese species, which has only nineteen dorsal vertebrae and a like number of pairs of ribs.f The under jaw figured by Cuvier, pi. 5, fig. 3, seems, judging from the width of the laminre of the teeth, to belong also to the Suma- tran species. The figure, pi. 1, fig. 1, is on the other hand apparently taken ■from a skeleton of the Bengalese Elephant, since it has only nineteen dorsal vertebrae and as many pairs of ribs, and this is perhaps also the case with the figure of the skull, pi. 4, fig. 1, and that of the under jaw, pi. 5, fig. 2. The supposition that both the other skeletons, examined by Cmaer, belonged to the second Asiatic sort is fully established by what he says, pp. 60, 67. He says here, that he has examined three skeletons of the Indian * Coup cl'oeil, II. p. 91. f It is very curious that Cuvier seems to have quite overlooked the differences in the uumher of dorsal vertebra; and ribs, not only in both the Asiatic but also in the African Elephant, for otherwise he could hardly have avoided alluding to tliem. The chapter of his Osseniensfossiles (I. p. 12), in which he speaks of the skeleton of the Elephant, has the heading " Description gcncrale de I'osteologie de I'Ele- phant, priucipalement d'apres I'Elephant des Indes,"' and it seems from the parti- culars here mentioned, that his principal object was the comparison of the skulls of the African and Indian Elephants; on the other hand that he confined himself to the consideration of the skeleton of Elephas sumatranus of Ceylon, while his figm'e of the skeleton represents that of the Bengalese Elephant. Again, (p. 241) he says, V Elephant (thus speaking generally), a uiie vertebre dorsale c* une paire des coU'sa plus, i. c. than the Mastodon, which, according to him, has only nineteen. t4t OEiaiNAX AETICLES. Elephant. One of these, which, according to Cuvier, belongs to the variety called Dauiitelah by Corse, was sent to the Museum at Leyden, in 1815, six years before the appearance of the second edition of the " Ossemens Fossiies," (see that ed. p. 66), where it exists at the present day. This skeleton agrees in all particulars with the Elephant of Bengal, having only nineteen dorsal vertebrae and the like number of ribs. The description which Cuvier gives of his Elephas indicus seems, therefore, to have been based exclusively upon his two other skeletons. Both of these, as he himself informs us, were from Ceylon. He tells us this, in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, (1806, p. 148), speaking of the male which he identifies with the variety, MooJcnah of Corse ; and he says the same (Oss. Poss. p. 67) of the female, which he considers as belonging to the variety Komarea of Corse, adding that these were the skeletons of two Elephants brought from Ceylon to the Netherlands in 17S6, and afterwards taken from thence to Paris.* Hence it appears very clear that Cuvier described his ElepTias indicus from specimens of two different species, one of which agrees with the Elephant of Bengal, whilst the others have all the charac- ters of the Elephant of Sumatra. Since, therefore, both the latter skeletons attributed by Cuvier to Ceylon, presented the characters of the Elephant of Sumatra, it appeared to me to be probable that the Ceylonese Elephant belonged to the Sumatran species, and not to that of Bengal — the so-called Elephas indicv^. This conjecture has been now wholly unexpectedly confirmed through a fortunate con- junction of circumstances, in a manner which leaves no further doubt on the subject. Tlie celebrated traveller Diaed, advanced in years, but still endued with that untiring zeal and youthful activity by which science and our National Museum have profited so largely, during his long service under the government of the Netherlands, passed three months in Ceylon, in 1838, on a journey undertaken with the object of investigating the system of cultivation, and em- ployed his leisure time in collecting the animals of the island. During some Elephant-shooting expeditions, he obtained a male and female Elephant from seven to eight feet high, and besides these two young specimens, which he placed entire in casks filled with arrack. The • In the Paris Museum at the present moment, as I learn by a fiiendly com- munication of Dr. Pucheran, there are, besides the skeletons of the two Ceylonese Elephants, brought from Holland to Paris in 1795, and examined by Cuvier, a thii-d sent by Duvaucel from Bengal. M. Pucheran confirms the fact, that both the Ceylonese clephant-jkeletons have twenty dorsal vertebrae and twenty pairs of ribs. He finds, however, the same number in the skeleton from Bengal. From this one might be led to suppose, that the Ceylonese Elephant Ls also found in Bengal. But I think it would be rash to consider' this fact established by a single observation, as all the skeletons of Bengalese Elephants which I have examined have had, with- out exception, only nineteen dorsal vertebrce and nineteen ribs. It is more likely that Duvauccl's skeleton was taken from a Ceylonese Elephant; examples of this sort being, as we shall afterwards show on the authority ef Hcer Diard, often brought living to Bengal. THE SUMATBA.N ELEPHANT. 75 ship in which most of H. Diard's specimens were sent to Europe, received so much damage at sea near the Mauritius, that the goods were mostly trans-sliipped, and sent in another vessel to Europe. It thus happened that she did not arrive in the Netherlands until two years after she had quitted Ceylon, and then with the news that the cask containing one of the young Elephants had been obliged to be thrown overboard, having become decomposed. A better fate awaited the second cask, containing the other young individual, which had been destined for Professor Owen of London ; and this and the skin and skeleton of the old male Elephant, as also the skull of the old female reached us well preserved. Tliese are now in the National Museum at Leyden, and, as an accm-ate investigation has convinced me, differ iu no respect from our examples of the Suma- tran Elephant, thus belonging to this species, and differing in the following particulars from ElepTias indicus. The Elephant of Sumatra and Ceylon, {ElepJias sumatranus) has small ears like E. indicus, and approaches this species also in the form of its skull, and the number of the caudal vertebras ; but the laminfe of its teeth are wider, and in the number of its dorsal verte- brae and pairs of ribs it differs from both the other known species. As far as we know, there are seven cervdcal, three lumbar and four Bacral vertebrae in all the species of Elephas alike. E. sumatranus and E. indicus agree in the ninnbcr of caudal vertebrje, winch is usually thirty- thi-ee, but in very yoimg examples sometimes only thirty. In E. africanus, on the other hand, the taU never contains more than twenty-six vertebrae. Einally, the numbers of dorsal vertebrae and pairs of ribs are different in each of the three living species of Elephant, being in E. africanus twenty-one, in E. suma- tranus twenty, and in E. indicus nineteen. It is also remarkable, that the number of true ribs is alike in all the species, that is, only five ; whilst in the three species, as above given, the corresponding numbers of false ribs are fifteen, foui'teen and thirteen. Hence it follows that the augmentation of these parts in the different species, takes place in the direction of the hindermost dorsal vertebra and pair of ribs. The laminae of the teeth afford another distinction, which, how- ever, is less apparent to the eye than that taken from the number of the vertebrae. These laminae, or bands, in E. sumatranus are -wider (or if one may so say, broader in the dii-ection of the long axis of the teeth) than in E. indicus. In making this comparison one must remark that the distinction is less evident in yomiger individuals, and that there are met with in all species of Elephants, within certain definite limits, remarkable individual differences in respect of the width of these laminas.* * The difFerences wluch we pointed out as existing between the skulls of the two sorts of Asiatic Elephants, in Teniminck's Coup d'oeil, (II. p. 9, note), seem, now that we have examined a greater number of examples, not to be constant. 76 OEIGINAL AETICLES. In their external form also the two Asiatic Elephants appear to present some differences. Heer Westerman, Director of the Gardens of the Zoological Society of Amsterdam, which has for several years possessed two female elephants of middling age, one from Calcutta and the other from Sumatra, informs me, on this subject, that the Suma- ti-an example is more slender and more finely built than the Benga- lese, that it has a longer and thinner snout, and that the rump at the end is more broadened and covered with longer and stronger hairs, in which respect it reminds one rather of the African than the Indian Elephant, and lastly that the Sumatran animal is more remarkable for its intellectual development than the Indian. The last mentioned observation agrees in a remarkable way with w^hat Heer Diard has lately wi-itten concerning the Elephant of Ceylon. He says, on this matter, " I'Elephant de Ceylon se dis- " tingue de celui des Indes par une aptitude d'intelligence instinc- " tive, celle de facile educabihte : aussi ces elephaus de Ceylon, de " tout temps recherches par les Princes de I'lnde se trouvent I'etre " encore aujourdhui plus qu' aucun autre par les Anglais pour les " differens services auxquels on les employe. J'ai eu I'occasiou " d' observer plusieursgrandes troupes de ces animaux et une parti- " culierement, qui avait fiui par se laisser prendre dans ime gi-ande " enceinte etablie par les ordres du Grouvernement, qui a cette " epoque oii la guerre de I'lnde etait encore loin d'etre terminee " faisait tout ce qu'il est possible pour recruter un certain nombre de " ces animaux afin de les dirigervers le Bengale." When we collect Avhat is known respecting the distribution of both species of Asiatic Elephants, it seems that this animal is met with eastward of the Indus throughout the whole of Hindostan, Bengal, and the wade districts of Em-ther India to Siam and Cochin- Chiua, and also on the islands of Ceylon and Sumatra ; that one of the species, U. sumafranus, has only yet been met with on the islands of Ceylon and Sumatra,* whilst the so-called Indian Elephant has been brought to Europe exclusively from Continental India. So far as I can discover, tlie greater number of Elephants brought to Europe from Continental India, have been obtained from Bengal. It remains therefore a question, whether all the Elephants of Continental India belong really to one species, or whether, in tliese widely extended regions, there may not be different species of Ele- phants, and the Elephant of Trans-gangetic India may not perhaps belong to U. sumatramis. A similar question may be asked with respect to the Elephant of Southern India, compared with the E. smnatranus of Ceylon, since these districts approach one ano- ther very nearly. We have, it is true, no more reasons for answer- • The whole area of tlie distribution of the Asiatic Elephants is, on the globe, eml)race(l in a district of the form of an elongated quadrangle of 40 degrees in length and 25 in breadth, of which about half is taken up by sea. It lies between 65» and 1U5" E. L. and irom IS. to fcj. extends from about 35"" and 25" N. to 5°S. THE STJMATBAN ELEPHAlfT, 77 ing tliese questions in the affirmative than the negative, but they must be determined by ascertaining the facts, in order to know the exact boundaries of the range of E. indicus* K, as we have reason to believe is the case, the Elephant of Southern India agrees with that of Bengal, then the phenomenon that the Ceylonese animal belongs to another species, and that species the Sumatran, is certainly very remarkable. The Fauna of Ceylon shows, it is true, in some respects, differences from that of Southern India ; one of the most noticeal^le of which is, that not one of the Monkeys living upon this island is identical with those of India. Nevertheless the Fauna of Ceylon agrees much better with that of India than with that of Sumatra, where not only entirely different species, but even other forms of Monkeys occur {e. g. the Orang- outang, severtil Gibbons, amongst which is the abnormal Hylobcdes syndacti/lus, the Galeopithecus, Sfc.) and wliich island besides pro- duces, to mention some of the larger species, a Rhinoceros, the Indian Tapir, a very different species of Bos and of Moschus, an Antelope, the Argus, Folyphctroti, several very peculiar species of Hornbill, (-G. 88 MeTrMiiaie* mentions, on tLe authority of Gantzer. a fascicle going from the Flexor FoUicis to the tendon of the index. It is remarkable also that the Falmaris Longus, which is so frequently absent iu man, should be pres^ent in most of the Quadrumana.f The Abductor Longiis FoUicis or Extensor Ossis JTet-acarpi was present, as also the Fxtensor Secundi Internodii FoUicis, but the Fxtensor Frimi internodii was abse-nt. The tendon of the Extensor Ossis ITetacarpi FoUicis was split into two portions, the larger being inserted into the os trapezium, and the smaller into the metacarpal bone. In man a small slip of the tendon normally goes to the os trapezium. % As no portion of the tendon went to the first phalanx, I see no reason for considering the anterior portion of the tendon as the homologue of the Ext. Frimi Internodii, as is stated by YroHk in the article " Quadrumana," in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Exactly the same arrangement was found in the Celus ; but in the ^Slagot, the anterior portion was the larger, and the smaller portion was inserted into a sesamoid bone, and not into the trapezium. Both muscles exist in the Chimpanzee (Trolik, p. 20), and in the GoriUa (Duv. p. 97). The Extensor secundi internodii was very weak : it arose from the ulna and the interosseous ligament in front of the Extensor indicis. Duvemoy mentions finding it proportionately as large in the Chim- panzee as in man, and as being smaller and weaker in the Grorilla. The Alductor PoUicis Brevis consisted of three distinct thin muscular layers, which were inserted together into the base of the first phalanx. The innermost layer arose fr'om the os trapezium, the other tno from the annular ligament. The Opponens FoUicis and Flexor Frevis FoUicis presented no points of interest ; the Opponens was very weak and small, the Flexor of tolerable size. The Adductor FoUicis was very large, arose from the palmar ligament, which was prolonged down the whole length of the metacarpal bones of the third and fourth digits, and was inserted into the under side of the first phalanx of the thumb. The Adductor was with difficulty divisible into two portions, one coming fi'om the palmar ligament, the other from its metacarpal prolonga- tions ; the division between the two was not nearly so evident as in the adductor of the hallux. In the Magot the Adductor possessed two distinct heads, the longer of which came from the external palmar fascia, the shorter from the os trapezium. The Opponens was relatively stronger than in the Orang. The Abductor was formed on the same plan. In both the Cebus and ]\Ligot I found a thin * Mr. McWhinnie, Yariedes of ihe Musenkr Svstem. London Medical Gazette, Januarv 1S46. •j- Henle, 1. a, p. 196, mentions the following important varietr of the muscle in man, " Instead of the Fhxor polUeis lonpus, the indicator portion of the Flexor digiiorum prcfwuiti^ receires a slender head from the common origin of the SHper- ficial muscles." — [Eds.] { Ellis, Demonstration of Anatomv, p. 3-3, 5th edition. g2 8J- ORTGIXAL RETICLES. muscular layei', arising fi'om the palmar ligament wliicli formed three small muscular digitations, which were inserted into the radial side of the first phalanx of the fourth and fifth digits, and the third into the ulnar side of the first phalanx of the index. A similar muscular expansion was found in the feet of these monkeys. The Pahnnris Brevis was, I think, absent, but as the animal had been skinned before I examined it, the muscle may have been cut away. Dr. Traill found none in the one he dissected. In the Chim- panzee it is present (Vrohk, 1. c. p. 20). It was remarkably large in the Magot, arching over the whole of the carpal portion of the hand, reaching from the external side of the little finger to the internal side of the thumb ; it was present also in the Cebus. The Abductor, Flexor Brevis and Opponens Minimi Digiti pre- sented no peculiarities worth notice. The Dorsal Inte^rossei presented the same general appearance as in man, only differing in the greater development of the Abductor Indicis ; but the palmar set differed considerably, being seven in num- ber ; the index possessed two, the radial one being a broad flattened muscle, which arose from almost the whole length of the metacarpal bone of that finger, and was inserted into the upper and inner side of the metacarpal of the pollex ;t the one on the ulnar side arose from the under and inner surface of the metacarpal of the index, and was in- serted into the first phalanx of the sam.e finger ; the middle and ring fingers had each two and the little finger one, similar muscles. In both the Cebus and Magot the dorsal muscles resembled man's, but the palmar ones closely resembled those of the Carnivora; they were also seven in number, and arose from the pahnar ligament, as well as from the metacarpal bones, which they completely hid from view. The hand of the Orang and of the Chimpanzee appears at first sight to be less perfectly organized than that of some of the other Qua- drumana, owing to the total absence of any long flexor of the thumb ; the absence of this muscle permits of a greater independence of motion in their thumbs than in any of the other monkeys, in which the long- flexor exists as a portion of the Profundus. In the Orang and Chim- panzee the great development of the Abductor, and the well marked Flexor Brevis in some degree make up for the absence of the long flexor. The double adductor has been observed in man (M'Whinnie). Wagner, when speaking of the hand of the Quadrumana, says : " The individual mobility of the fingers is much more limited than in man, and this is more particularly the case with the thumb."* This is perfectly true of lower Quadrumana, as is shown in the case of the Cebus, but I think in the Baboons and Magots the greater develop- ment of the muscles of the thumbf proves that they can move the * Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals. 11. Wagner, p. 18. Translated by Talk. •f This appears to conespond with the Musculus interosseus volaris primns — (a fourth palmar interosseus) described by Henle, 1. c., p. 228, as constant in the himian liund. — [Eds.] CHFRCH ON THE MYOLOGY OF THE OEANG UTANG. 85 thumb independeutly, and are capable of seizing an object in the same way as the Oraugs and Man, i.e. with the fingers on one side and the thumb on the other. In the Chimpanzee and the Orang this freedom of motion has been obtained at the expense of the sti'ength of the thumb, in which point they are Tery inferior to Man or the other Quadrumana. The hand of the Orang contrasts unfavourably with that of the Chimpanzee, owing to the absence of the Extensor Frioni Internodii Pollicis and the Extensor Froprius Indicls. In the rudimental thumb of the Ateles aU. these muscles exist, showing that its development is merely arrested and not suppressed. The Muscles of the Posterior Extremity. The Iliacus, Fsoas Magnus and Fsoas Parvus presented much the same appearance as in man ; they are flatter, and in accordance with the elongated shape of the pelvis, longer ; beneath these muscles a small one was found, mentioned by Professor Owen,* as present in the Orang, but not in the Chimpanzee, which arose from the ileum in close coiuiection with the Fectus Femoris, passed over and was attached to the capsular ligament of the femur, and was inserted into the trochanter minor. The Tensor Vaginmur ; it was remarkably broad and thick, having a uniform breadth of two inches ; and was inserted partly into the head of the fibvila, but chiefly into the fascia of the leg. The short head of the Biceps is often wanting in man,* in which * Eiicyd. Aiiat. Tom. iii. ^. 305. CHURCH ON THE MTOLOOY OF THE OKANO UTANO. 87 case tlie Biceps would closely resemble that of the bulk of the Qua- drumaua. Mr. M'Whiiiuie ineutions, on the authority of Saltzmauu, a muscular slip given oif from the Biceps, and having a tendinous insertion on the outer part of the leg between the Gastrocnemius and Soleus. The low insertion of the Biceps and of the Gracilis, Semitendi- nosus and Semimembranosus, together with the greater size and the presence of fleshy fibres throughout the whole length of the two latter muscles, point directly to scausorial habits of the Quadrumana, and must tend to relieve the strain caused by the weight of the body on the knee during climbing ; and in the Orang, where the insertion of these muscles was remarkably low, they must prevent the knee from being straightened, and so incapacitate the animal for assimiing the erect posture. The Glutceus Maximits was weak, and had a small origin ; it did not reach to the spine of the ilium, and it was inserted into the fascia lata and the linea aspera, Avitliout sending any fibres to the great trochanter. The Glutceus Medius was largely developed, as appears to be the case generally among Quadrumana. The Glutceus Minimus appears to be differently described by various writers. Professor Owen* mentions its presence, but does, not describe its origin ; while the muscle described as the Glutceus- Minimus by Dr. Traill, I have regarded as the Gemellus superior, which arose not only from the spine of the ischium, but from the posterior edge of that bone as well. In the Cehus, the Glutceus Mi- nimus is large, and arises from the dorsum and posterior edge of the ihum. The muscle described by Dr. Traill as the Musculus Scan- sorius, and mentioned by Professor Owenf as the Invertor Femoris, was very well developed in the Orang, but appeared to be wanting or merged into the Glutceus Minimus in the Cebus ; it arose, in the Orang, from the whole of the anterior edge of the ilium to within three-fourths of an inch of the acetabulum, and was inserted into the front of the great trochanter: the same disposition of this muscle, was found in the Magot. The Piriformis was large and well developed, but narrower than in man ; in both the Magot and Cebus it had begun to be fused with Glutceus Medius ; this is occasionally the case in man, when the Pyri- f or mis is largely developed. J The Gemelli were large, especially the Gemellus Superior, which arose not only from the tuberosity of the ischium, but from the elongated ilium, also covering a space of one inch and a quarter ; its tendon was quite distinct from that of the Obturator internus, which was also of large size. In the Magot the Gemelli and the Obturatores internus and exter- nus Avere present, but rather small ; the large size of these muscles in the Orang, together Avith the presence of the small muscle * Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Vol. i. p. 68. f Ibid. X Mr. Hallett, Ed. Med. and Surgical Journal, 1848. 88 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES. described ^^^tll the Iliacus and the Invertor femoris may perhaps be owing to the freedom allovred the hip joint by the absence of the ligamentum teres, which the Orang alone of the Quadrumana wants. The Adductor muscles were of coarse textm'e, and split into numerous bundles. In the Magot the Adductor Longiis formed a distinct belly, partly inserted into the tibia (Yid. Cm-ier, 1. c, PI. e31-32). The Tibialis Anticus was relatively stronger than in man ; it arose from the tuberosity and anterior surface of the tibia, for a space of three inches and a half, and its tendon was split into two portions, the posterior and larger, being inserted into the cimeiform bone, the anterior and smaller, into the base of the metatarsal bone of the hallux. In this instance there was no dirision of the muscle into fascicles, as described in Article Quadrumana in the Cyclopa-dia of Anatomy and Physiology, and in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, therefore I think there is no reason to consider the anterior division of the tendon as belonging to the Abductor Sallucis Zongus, especially when we observed a similar arrangement in the Abductor PolUcis, and that, in man, a small slip of tendon normally passes on to the metatarsal of the great toe.* In the Chimpanzee, Professor Owen states that the tendon is inserted into the scaphoid. In the Cebus the muscular belly is divided into two fascicles, which may be regarded as the Abductor Sallucis Longus and Tibialis Anticus. In the Magot the same arrangement is found. The Extensor Froprius Hallucis was remarkably w'eak and slen- der ; it arose from the upper part of the fibula and the interosseous ligament, and was inserted as in man. Cuvier has figiu-ed, 1. c. PL 19, an extensor of the index distinct from the Extensor coimnunis ; it was absent in this instance, and neither Professor Owen nor Duvernoy mention it. The Extensor Communis Digit orum resembled man's. The Pero- noBUs Longior arose from the head of the fibida, the outer and back part of that bone and the intermuscular septum, for a space of three inches, and was inserted into the m^etatarsal bone of the hallux, acting as a powerful flexor of that digit. The Peronceus Brevior arose toge- ther with the preceding muscle, and was inserted into the metatarsal bone of the fifth digit ; it was a much more fleshy muscle than the Peronceus Longior, and remained fleshy on the posterior surface almost to the point of its insertion. The Peronceus Tertius was absent. In the Magot and Cebus the Peroncei Longior and Brevior re- sembled those of the Orang, only diftering in their greater relative size, but both of them possessed a Peronaeus Tertius, which consisted of a thin muscular layer lying beneath the Peronceus Brevior, and terminating in a very fine tendon, which passed through a slit in the tendon of the Peronceus Brevior on a level with the cuboid bone, and • Ellis's Demonstration of Aiiiitom}^, Edit. 5, p 754. CHURCH OK THE MYOLOGY OF THE OEANG UTAXG. 89 ran along the superior surface of tlie metatarsal of the little finger, to be mserted with that of the Extensor Communis Digitorum. In the Magot the Feronceiis Tertius became tendinous very high up the leg, passed down, closely applied to the posterior part of the PeroncBus Brevior, accompanying the tendon of the latter muscle until its insertion, and did not pass through a slit in it as in the Cebus. The Gastrocnemius was remarkably thin and weak, causing the absence of any calf to the leg ; this muscle is stated by Duvernoy to have remained distinct from the Soleus in three specimens dissected by him, but in this instance the two became fused, three inches above the point of insertion. The Soleus was intimately connected with the external head of the Gastrocnemius, and arose from the head of fibula, by a very narrow tendon, receiving no fibres from the tibia and not even encroaching on the FopUteus or Flexor digitorum. In the Cebus the Soleus was much larger, but had only a single origin from the head of the fibula. In the Magot both these muscles were, much larger, forming qidte a calf to the leg. The Soleus remained distinct for a much longer period than in the Orang, and it arose by two heads, one from the fibula, the other from the external condyle of the femur. The Plantaris was wanting ; as stated by Duvernoy and Dr. Traill, it is present in the Chimpanzee and wanting in the Grorilla, (Duvernoy, 1. c. p. 93). It was well developed in the Magot, arising in conjunction with the external head of the Gastrocnemius ; it was absent in the Cebus. This muscle appears not to be as often absent as it is usually supposed, not one case being met with by Mr. Hallett. The FopUteus, which was not found by Dr. Traill, was present in the Orang, and also in the Cebus and Magot, being very large in the latter animal. The most striking points in the muscles of the posterior extremity were the weakness of the Glutcei muscles, and the striking development of the Gracilis, Semi-membranosus and Semi-tendinosus. The abductors were very similar to man's, but were, perhaps, slightly stronger, while the Quadriceps extensor was much weaker. The leg of the Orang contrasted with that of the Magot most strikingly. In the latter animal the muscles of the poste- rior region were developed so as to form a large and well-shaped calf, while the excessive development of the Tihialis Anticus gave quite a deformed appearance to the anterior region, the large development of these muscles seeming to point to the terrestrial habits of this animal. The Feronceus tertius was absent in the Orang, and is fre- quently wanting in the human subject ; and the Feronceus Brevis is subject to many variations in man, presenting abnormal conditions once in every five subjects examined by Mr. Hallett. The Flexor Lonc/us Figitorum had not such a large origin as in man, it extended dowTi the tibia to within 2\ inches of the lower end of that bone, while in man it reached to within 3 inches. The mus- cular fibres did not terminate in a tendon until the muycle had 90 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. passed the inner malleolus ; consequently instead of occupying the groove together with the Tibialis posticus, it lay on the external surface of the groove. It broke up into three tendons distributed to the second, the fourth, and little toes. The portion for the second toe was supplied with two Lumhricalis muscles, inserted into the tibial side of the first phalanx of the second and third toes ; the tendon of the little toe was also supplied with a Lumhricalis muscle inserted into the tibial side of the first phalanx of that toe. The tendon of the fourth toe is perforated by the Flexor haUucis* while those of the second and little toes perforate the tendons of the Flexor brevis. In the Orang it sent no slip to the tendon of the deep Flexor (Flexor hallucis). In the Cehus this muscle is small, the largest portion of its tendon going to the little toe, and forming a perforat- ing tendon ; the smaller portion mainly joins the slip of the Flexor hallucis, which goes to the hallux, and it also sends small tendinous slips to the other divisions of the deep flexor, as the Flexor hallucis might well be called. In the Magot this muscle is of considerable size, and is largely supplied with Lumhricales, which form a fleshy mass on the surface of the tendon, and are inserted into the inner and dorsal surface of the first phalanx of the second, third and fourth toes on the tibial side ; the one going to the little toe usurps the ofl&ce of the Flexor brevis pedis, and is perforated by the tendon of the Flexor communis. This muscle sends a small tendinous slip to the tendon of the Flexor hallucis which supplies the hallux, and has also other tendinous connections with that muscle, but does not fuse with it as completely as the Flexor pollicis does ^v-ith the Flexor pro- fundus, in the hand. The Flexor Lonr/us Hallucis, arose by two heads, the long head arising from the external condyle of tlie femur, together with the external head of the Gastrocnemius ; the short head arose from the posterior and inner surface of the tibia to mthin an inch and a half of its distal end. It formed a large tendon which bifurcated and went to the last phalanx of the middle and fourth toes, the tendon of the latter perforating a branch of the Flexor communis, and that of the middle toe a branch of the Flexor brevis. Both of the tendons were supplied with a good sized Lumhricalis muscle, which was in- serted into the tibial side of the first phalanx of the respective toes. No slip whatever went to the hallux. In the Gorilla a very strong tendon goes to the hallux as Avell as to the third and fourth digits (Duvernoy, 1. c. p. iii). In the Cebus it supplies the second toe, as well as the third and foui'th, and sends a strong branch to the haUux. In the Magot the same arrangement obtains. The Tibialis Posticus was remarkably weak in the Cebus : in the Orang it did not present much difference from the corres])onding muscle in man. A^ery great weight has been laid upon the great development of '* And therefore probably represents a division of the Flexor brevis. — [Eds.] CHURCH ON THE MTOLOOY OP THE OEANG TJTANQ. 91 tlie Flexor Hallucis in man, and the absence of any slips to tlie other toes, but many instances are recorded, in which the tendinous band which unites the Flexor hallucis to the Flexor communis, was pro- longed, forming two tendons accompanying, but distinct from, the tendons of the Flexor Digitorum which supply the second and third digits ; in fact, so common is this, that Vesalius has figured it, (PI. 14), and mentions it as no rare occurrence (p. 295), as also does Theile.* NoAV this distribution of the tendons is exactly what is met with in the bulk of the Quadrumana, excepting that in them, the branches usually go to the third and fourth digits. Another point in which the foot of the Quadrumana resembles man, is in the course taken by the Peronceus lonc/ns, and I might add, also, the distribution in gome of them (the Inuus and Cehus for instance) of the Peronceus tertius. The portion of the Extensor Brevis Pedis which went to the hallux might almost be regarded as a distinct muscle, for, owing to the position of the hallux, its fibres scarcely mix at their origin with those of the rest of the muscle. In the Cehus and Magot, owing to the hallux being almost in the same plane with the other digits, the hallucal portion resembled the other digitations of this muscle. The dorsal Interossei diftered in no respect from the correspond- ing muscles in man, excepting that one on the tibial side of the index had a second head attached to the hallux, exactly corresponding to the Abductor indicis in the hand. This head from the hallux Avas not present in either the Cehus or Magot, and accords with the greater freedom permitted to the hal- lux in the Orang, for in the Orang the hallux can be flexed inde- pendently of the other digits, and, in fact, it presents the closest resemblance to the poUex. The Ahductor Hallucis arose from the calcaneum and the internal aiuiular ligament, and chiefly diftered from that of man in the large size of its origin from the annular ligament. In the Cehus and Magot it arose by two distinct heads from the calcanemn and the plantar fascia. In the Orang it had an insertion into the metatarsal bone as well as into the first phalanx. djiw boiiqqw The Flexor Brevis Pedis arose by two distinct heads, separated by the plantar nerves ; the upper and smaller head arose from the ligament covering the astragalus, and fi'om the inner margin of the groove on that bone which transmits the Flexor Lonc/us Hallucis ; the lower and larger head arose from the calcaneum. This muscle di- vided into two portions, and was inserted by tendons which gave passage to the deep flexor, into the second phalanges of the second and third toes. Dr. Traill describes it as going to all four digits. In the Chimpanzee and Grorilla it goes to the second and thii-d digits only (Duvernoy, 1. c). In the Cehus and Magot it arose by a single * Encyc. Anat. Tom. iii. p. 323. 92 OEIGmAL AETICLES. liead from tlie calcaneum, and supplied the index only, being a Flexor proprius of that digit. The portion of this muscle going to the little toe in ui?.n is not unfrequently wanting, and its absence is compensated by either a branch from the Jblexor communis, or by a muscle resembling a lumiricalis,* just as in the Magot. The Abductor Mminii Digiti arose from the calcaneum, and formed a strong tendon inserted into the proximal end of the first phalanx of the fifth digit. In the Magot this muscle was inserted into the proximal end of the fifth metatarsal bone, its oflice being usurped by the strongly developed Peronceus tertius ; in the Cebus, however, in Avhich the Perojiasus tertius is developed, this muscle was of considerable size, and was inserted in the visual manner. The Flexor accessorius arose by a single fleshy head from the under surface of the calcaneum, and broke up into a broad tendinous ex- pansion, which was inserted into the tendon of the Flexor communis which supplied the little finger, and into a very fine tendon which accompanied the tendon of the Flexor communis, and after giving passage to it by a slit, was inserted into the second phalanx of the fifth digit, thus usurping the office of the Flexor brevis, and acting instead of the LumbricuUs described in the Magot. In the Cebus and Magot the Flexor accessorius clutched on to the tendon of the Flexor communis as in man. The Flexor Brevis Hallucis arose from the internal cuneiform bone and the plantar fascia, and possessed two small bellies, the ex- ternal of which was inserted into the first phalanx, the internal into the metatarsal of the haUux. In the Magot the inner belly formed a separate muscle, very much resembling an interosseous muscle ; it arose from the external cuneiform bone and was inserted into the sesamoid bone of the fibular side of the hallux. The Adductor Hallucis was very large, and divisible into two muscles. (Vide Cuvier, 1. c, PI. 16, where he considers the Flexor Brevis as a third adductor.) Beneath what Cuvier terms the Adducteur oblique, which I have described as the Flexor brevis, a strong fleshy muscle is found, arising from the anterior border of the peroneal sheath, from the head of the metatarsals of the third digit, and from the upper part of a strong band of ligament, which stretched across from the head of the third digit to be inserted into the distal end of the metatarsal and proximal end of the first phalanx of the second digit. This portion is called by Cuvier Adducteur opi^osant des quatrieme et cinquieme doigts. Arising from the lower portion of the ligament just described is a thinner muscular layer, inserted over nearly the whole length of the metatarsal bone of the hallux : this is described by Cuvier as the Adducteur transverse. In the Magot the Adductor was very powerful, especially the upper portion, which arose as in the Orang, but gave off" a slip to the metatarsal of the hallux. The inferior portion was also strong, though • Enc. Anat Tom. iii. p. 439. CHURCn ON THE MYOLOGY OF TUE OK.OTG UTANG. 93 tlie ligament which stretched across the plantar space Avas not so strong as in the Orang, and thinned ont at its lower edge into a thin fascia. Arising from this ligament, in the Magot and Cehis, were three muscular slips, which were inserted by short and flattened tendons into the tibial side of the first phalanx of the foiu'th and fifth digits, and into the fibular side of the same bone in the second digit ; thus exactly paralleling the arrangement found in the hand of these monkeys. The Transversal is Pedis did not exist in any of the three monkeys. It is mentioned by Duvernoy as being represented by ligament in the Orang. It has been noticed to be wanting in man.* The Plantar Interossei presented a wide difterence from those in the human subject. The first digit has one on the fibular side ; the third and fourth digits, one on each side ; and the fifth digit, one on the tibial side. They are large muscles, and not only occupy the space between the bones, but also lie beneath them, covering them in on the plantar surface ; each muscle is inserted into the upper part of the bone of the first phalanx of its respective digit. In the Magot, the Interossei differ from the Orang, none of them having any dorsal origin ; they therefore appear all to belong to the plantar group. They are eight in number, and arise from the sheath of the PeroncBUs Lonc/us. The fifth digit has one, the rest two. The muscles are inserted into the sesamoid bones and head of the first phalanx of the digits. The middle digit has a third, which, perhaps, ought to be regarded as coming from the under part of the fascia, sending the muscular slips before described to the second, fourth and fiftli digits, rather than from the sheath of the Peronceus. Its in- sertion is also different from the others, being inserted into the upper and outer side of the first phalanx of the third digit. The second, fourth and sixth interossei are the largest, and are visible on the dorsal surface between the metatarsal bones. If now we briefly review the chief points of difference between the muscular systems of the Quadrumana and of Man, we find in the muscles of the trunk few points of interest. The abdominal muscles are much thicker and stronger, to support the weight of the intestines when the animal is on all fours. The cervical muscles also are stronger ; but, with the exception of the digastric, differ very little from man's. The digastric presents an intermediate condition in the Orang, the chief insertion being into the angle and inner surface of the jaw, corresponding to the usual insertion in the Quadrumana and lower animals ; but it sends forwards a slender tendon lying on the inferior surface of the mycohyoid muscle to be inserted, as in man, at the symphysis of the jaw. The presence of the Clavio-troclielien appears to be almost equalled in man by the division of the Levator Anguli Scapulcs into several distinct portions, and their occasional insertion into the spine instead of the angle of the scapula. • Mr. M'Whinnie, on the authority' of Bochmer. 94 OEiaiNAL ARTICLES. I was unable to find any record of a slip being given ofT in man from tlie Latissimus dorsi* to the Olecranon, tbough. it frequently sends one to the Pectoralis major on its posterior surface, or to fuse with the Coraco-brackialis at its origin.f In man, tlie Pectoralis major occa- sionally sends a slip downwards to the internal condyle of the humerus. The variations of the extensor and flexor muscles of the hand have been already described ; but I cannot agree with Wagner in saying " that the Flexor Brevis is fused -svith the Abductor, and that the Flexor Lonyus PoJlicis is only a tendon of the Flexor Profundus ;"| as in all three of the Apes dissected the origin of the Flexor Longus PoUicis was distinct from that of the Profundus. In the posterior extremity, the Biceps appears the most svibject to variation of any of the muscles, with the exception of the Perouaeus Tertius, both in man aaid the Quadrumana. In the foot of the Quadrumana, which is too often regarded as approaching more nearly to the structure of the hand than of the foot in man, owing, I think, to too great stress having been laid on the opposability of the hallux and the length of the phalangeal bones, we find that in the Orang alone is the hallux independent in its motions ; in all the rest, even the Chimpanzee, § it is supplied with a flexor tendon in common with some of the other toes, thus approaching nearer to the organization of the foot in man. The other muscles of the foot are strictly homologous with those in the human foot, and only analogous to those in the hand. The PeroncBus Longior, the Extensor and Flexor Brevis, and the Flexor accessorius are foimd in the Quadrumana as in man, modified in their distribution so as to suit the habits of the animals, but performing similar functions, and having the same homological relations. In the Interosseous muscles we see an approach to the Carnivora ; more espe- cially in the Magot, which has sesamoid bones developed on all its toes. "Wagner (1. c.) states that the interosseous muscles of the posterior extremity are arranged like those of the same name in the human hand ; but I tliink, from the descriptions before given, they will be seen in all instances to resemble rather the Carnivora. The anatomy of the Quadrumana, as mentioned by Vrolik, forms a most interesting connection between the Bimana and the lower animals, especially the Carnivora, as they possess so many points of resem- blance to both orders. * Vide Editor'.s Note on the Latissimus dorsi, p. 542 of the preceding Niunber of this Review. t Encyc. Anat. Tom. iii. p. 124. . J h c. p. 19. § Vrolik, p. 20. 95 X. — Anatomical Notes. — By Professor Hyrtl, of the University of Vienna. (Continued from Nat. Hist. Rev. for 1861, p. 324.) 5. Pneumatic Processes of the Occipital Pone. Some time since I directed the attention of anatomists to a very interesting and anomalous process of the condyloid portion of the occipital bone (Wiener. Medic. AVochenschrift, 1860, N. 45). This process is sitviated between the articular process of the occipital bone and the mastoid process of the temporal. It pre- sents an elliptical form, the long axis of which is vertical, and its circumference is about that of the tip of one of the fingers. The process is not solid, but consists of many cells, which are in direct comminiication with the " air-containing" cells of the mastoid pro- cess. Hence I have called these processes " Pnemnatic." Since the notice above referred to was written, two additional instances of the occurrence of this process have presented themselves to me. One was given me by a student, who found the skull in a large bonehouse in a burying place, in his native town in Bohemia. The other was observed in a female skull, from my dissecting room. In both of them the processes are as large as a hazel-nut, and they are covered by so thin a- layer of compact osseous structure, that the internal arrangement of the air-containing cells can be easily dis- tinguished. In the female skull refen-ed to, the cells of the pneu- matic process extend as far as the condyloid process of the occipital bone, where they lose their partition walls and unite to form a single rather large cavity. It is a curious fact, that the cells of the pneumatic process commu- nicate with those of the mastoid, passing, as they do, across the mastoid suture ; but there are many similar cases in Comparative Anatomy, where the pneumatic cavity of the frontal bone extends (across the coronal and lamhdoid suture) to the occipital bone {Elej^lias and almost all other Pachydermata). These pneumatic processes have been since observed by several of my fellow-anatomists, who have, in sundiy communications to me, confirmed my observations in this matter; and I doubt not but that every Craniological Collection of any extent will likewise afford evidence of their existence. I can boast of the possession of a very large series of crania, as for a long time past all the skulls of the subjects of my dissecting rooms are carefully prepared by maceration, and the number so pre- pared varies each year from 200 to 300, yielding thus an abundant supply for the hunting out of anatomical curiosities. A careful investigator will not confound the new process with the paramastoid process, which is very often present in skulls. This latter is a strong process, with a thick layer of compact substance, 96 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. containing no cells (simply common reticular substance), and is most commonly united to the lateral part of the Atlas by synostosis. I cannot give a better proof of the difference between the two processes, than by stating that both these processes are to be seen in a skull in my collection (No. 711). These processes are of no practical interest, but they are worthy of notice in a morphological point of view. Some of the older anato- mists tell us of " a double mastoid process" — mistaking, I think, the pneumatic process for a secondary mastoid. 6. 0)1 " Endless" Nerves. There has been of late years a very great excitement among physi- ologists, in reference to experiments as to the functions of nerves. Careful anatomical investigation as to their origin and distribution has, I fear, been thrown somewhat into the back ground. I do not speak of the svibject of the microscopical investigation of nerves, but of then' origin and distribution, such as can be determined by simple dissections. JSTow-a-days many are inclined to regard human descriptive ana- tomy as a science abeady completed, and fancy that to it only trifling details can be added ; but this is far from the case, and I would that the scalpels of the anatomist would work a little closer and finer, and that they would try to emulate, as it were, some of those high powers of our microscopes ; for, in the minute anatomy of parts, very much remains to be done. To proceed, however, to the subject matter of this note. I think the commonly used term, anastomosis, is capable of a stricter interpretation than is generally given to it. As when a nerve A, as the text-books say, anastomises with B, we want to know whether a branch of -4 goes to B, or a branch of B to A. In a great number of anastomoses, it is true, we have clear evidence on this subject. Others will, doubtless, follow. But we would further inquire : What does a branch, coming from A to B do, wJie?i united with B ? The text-books tell us that the branch coming from A to B will remain with B, or will separate from it, and go to nerve C. " That, in some cases, the branch coming from the nerve AtoB wiU, passing along B, 7'eturn to its nervous centre," is the newly established fact, which I wish to call attention to noAV. Wlien a nerve returns to its origin, it has no peripherical end, and it may, perhaps with convenience, be called o-eXtjc, just as engineers and iiicchanies call a circular cord " ein Seil ohue Ende." Such nerves oceiu* in the ansa hypoglossi, in the anastomoses between the branches of the spinal-nerves in the upper and inferior extremities. When an accessory obturator* nerve exists, the greater part of its fibres will be found to return with the true obturator nerve, with which it anastomoses, to the spinal marrow. The palmar * Adam Schmidt, Ncrvi Lumbales. PROFESSOR HTRTL S jVNATOMICAL NOTES. 97 and plantar nervous arches afford also opportunities of witnessing these nerves Avithont end. They are likewise met with in the loops of the anterior branches of the spinal nerves ; in the anastomoses of the right and left Hypoglossus ; in the fleshy portion of the Grenio- hyoid muscles. That is to say, I have found such returning nerves in the localities referred to. It will be the labour of years, if not of a life, to discover all the anastomoses which possess or are destitute of these " regressive" fibres. These nerves not being lost in the substance of muscles, nor in sensorial surfaces, may merit the paradoxical appellation of ' endless nerves.' To thoroughly investigate this very important fact in anatomy, I should suggest the co-operation of a number of practical anatomists, who would undertake to investigate* such and such anastomoses, and who would give in an annual report of the result of their joint labours. I will, in the course of this winter, take my share. The returning branches are sometimes in such thick bundles that they can, by a careful dissection, be easily traced onward. It may be the case, indeed is so, in some of the instances alluded to, that a few of the returning fibres from B pass toward G, and continue onwards to the periphery ; but even then a certain amount of nerve fibre does undoubtedly run backward to the nervous centre from which they emanated. In the Chiasma opticum, fibres have been observed by Hannover, Mayo, and others, running from one nerve bundle to another, and forming a loop, which is ' a nerve without end.' These instances show that the thing is not quite new. The annexed woodcut exhibits this form of recurrent anastomoses in a Hypoglossus. h, branch from a, meeting the first cervical and proceeding back again. l- PHOFESSOU nYETl/s ANATOMICAL NOTES. Q9 The aorta contains mixed blood ; when this blood, therefore, is so brought to the lungs, the venous portion of it is oxygenated, and then this ox3^genated product goes to the vena porta?. This is an extraordinary fact, and cannot, I think, be physiologically understood, so long as we loiow so little of the chemistiy of the production of bile in reptiles. In all those genera of short-bodied snakes, where the pulmonary branches of the aorta are wanting, there are, in addition to the pul- monary vein to the aviricle, three to five small pulmonary veins going direct to the vena portse. The necesKsity for arterialized blood in the organ supplied by this vein is therefore placed beyond a doubt. 8. 0)1 tlie Hadial Artery in the Cheiroptera. A very curious anatomical fact, and one not devoid of physiological interest, is to be found in the membranous expansion of the ' wing' of the bat. It consists in the immediate transmission of arterial blood into a. venous trunk, without the intervention of capillary vessels. This I have found to be the case in the following genera: — Plecotus, Vespertilio, Hhinolophus, Pteropus, Noctula. Inject a bat, through the aorta, with a coarse injection material (specimens from abroad, which have been long preserved in spirits, reqviire a somevv'hat finer material), which you are siu-e will not too easily enter the capillary system. The wings ought to be extended, so as to facilitate the passage of the fluid through the brachial artery into the arteries of the arm and hand. Even should the injection meet with but a very second-rate success, still it will be found that a large vein will be also filled. This vein imns along the free margin of the fold of the integument, and extends from the shoulder joint to the carpus. This vein is the somewhat modified vena cephalica of man and the other mammalia. A very careful investigation as to where the artery ends and the ^'ein begins, shows us that the radial artery, whicli tends towards the metacarpal bone of the thumb, describes a circle round the base of the thumb, from its palmar to the dorsal side, and is, on reaching the back of the hand, reflected towards the forearm, as a vein (vena cephalica) which takes its way between the two layers of the before alluded to fold of the integument to the arm-pit, where it terminates in the vena axillaris. Before becoming a vein, the radial artery sends off the requisite branches for the nutrition of the parts in connection with the elon- gated metacarpal and phalangeal bones ; but, at the same time, its real termination is not to be sought for in the capillary system, but in the peculiar manner I have just referred to ; for, owing to having used a coarse injection, no capillary vessels have been filled, and yet, notwithstanding, a venous trunk (larger than the vena brachialis itself) is filled up with the injection material, throughout eitlier the whole or entire of its length (reckoning from the thumb). h2 100 ORIGINAL ABTICLES. K the arm be alloAvecl to remain folded, tlie result will not be satisfactory, as many of the arteries of the arm will probably be bent on themselves, there bein^; articulations in the osseous system of the extremity ; but if the unfolded wing be tied down to a slip of wood, the more favourable position of the trunk and branches of the bra- chial artery wdll cause the injection seldom or never to fail. The immortal discoverer of the circulation of the blood, in whose lifetime the existence of the capillary system was not known, sur- mised that part of the arterial blood passed to the veins " per porosi- tates carnis," and part by a direct " anastomosis" between arteries and veins. His spirit may, perhaps, rejoice that the latter of these suppositions has now, at last, been proved to have been not a merely arbiti-ary surmise. Microscopic observers of the circulation in the transparent mem- branous web of the bat's wing have mentioned, that the veins in certain distinct localities of the wing may be seen to pulsate like arteries. I shall feel happy if this short note of my researches may explain the true reason of this hitherto unexplained phenomenon. Though pulsation extends not to the capillary vessels, yet physiolo- gists will admit that it must extend to a vein, when that vein is the immediate prolongation of an artery, and the ti'unk of a vein pulsating will, in all probability, cause some of its smaller branches to do the same. 0. On tlie Ophthalmic Veinjoitiing the Po7'tal System. In the tailless Batrachians a very considerable addition to the number of vessels going to the vena portae is to be met with. Among others, the ophthalmic vein sends its blood to the portal system. If the main trunk of the vena portse of a frog or toad be injected — (it is better to open the vein where it passes through the pancreas ; the attachment to this gland serving to keep the vein open ; the injection must be thrown towards the intestines, not towards the liver) — it will be found that all the veins of the pharnyx and of the roof of the mouth have been filled, and hence must, therefore, have belonged to the portal system. These veins form a most complicated network, the main trunks of which are of considerable diameter, so that one might fancy they saw a cavernous structure. The capillary vessels of the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx join these venous trunks without any sensible diminution of their calibre (as is the case in other organs), and in addition, they are joined by two large veins, which come out of the floor of the orljital cavities, and are the true ophthalmic veins. The injection, if successful, has entered them, and has filled, likewise, the choroid, iris, and the vascvJar hyaloid. It may be mentioned here, that the above alluded to insertion of capillary Acssels into large venous trunks is by no means restricted to the mouth and pharynx. In the testes and ovaries the same thing occurs, for the capillaries of these organs meet large venous blood-vessels which surround the germinal follicles in the ovary, or piiOFESsoE iitetl's ajtatomical kotes. 101 tlie perfectly closed spermato-genetic cells in the testicle, and this is not only the case among tlie Progs, but prevails, without exception, throughout the whole classes of the Eeptilia and Amphibia. 10, Oil some additions to our Jcnoioledge of Retia mirahilia. I have just concluded a memoir on recently discovered " Eetia mirabilia " in Mammals and Birds, which is for presentation to the Imperial Academy of Science, and which will probably be published in the Transactions of that learned Society. But as I cannot hope that its publication will take place for some time, I give the follow- ing brief epitome of its contents, but refrain from giving the descrip- tive particulars in detail. In Birds these Eetia mirabilia occur only in the Tibial artery (Tibio-tarsal artery) of long-legged species — they are not found in any of the short-legged species — this con- clusion is the result of the investigation by means of injection of more than fifty genei'a. The rareness of injected preparations of birds, wiU add somewhat to the value of my memoir ; one great merit of which will consist in a series of splendid drawings from nature. It may be of interest to append the names of some of the more remark- able. Among the Cursores, I foimd the most complicated and richest Uete mirabile in the Apteryx awstralis, where it extends from the foreleg to the middle of the elongated tarsus ; it covers the main trunk of the tibial and tarsal artery, crossing and recrossing it, so that, to the casual observer, it would appear as if the artery split up into so many branches, and that these composed the rete, but on closer examination the tibio-tarsal artery will be seen threading its way underneath the densely compact mass of the rete, and emerging, undiminished in its size, from its inferior end. In the Ostrich (^Struthio); Rhea ; Dromaius ; Casuarius; Leptoptilus ; Plioenicopterus ; Ardea; Ibis o'eligiosa (Sacred Ibis), and many others belonging to the ArdeidfB, the rete is found only in the foreleg. In the Ostrich and its congeners the rete is very small, consistiug of a few (2-4) elongated and very slender branches, which are so closely applied to the chief trunk of the tibial artery, that their discovery and isolation require a good eye and sharp instruments. In the Apteryx the numerous vessels that enter to form the rete never return to unite with the tibio-tarsal artery, from which they originally sprung. "When they cease to surround and accompany that artery, they imite to newly formed arteries, providing for the deficiency of the colla- teral branches of the main artery, which latter are totally wanting from the commencement of the rete. I lay some stress on the fact that the main trunk of the anterior tibial* artery and its prolonga- tion as tarsal is only destined to supply the toes, the rest of the soft parts of the foot receive their blood from the various newly formed arteries, into which the rete mirabile branches off" at its inferior * The posterior tibial is wanting. 102 ORIGINAL AllTICLES. bouuclary. The tibio-tarsal rete niirabile of this wingless bird is therefore unipolar. In tlie iwWj developed rete of Struthio and its congeners it is however bipolar ; each of its few constituent branches, inserts itself into the trimk of the tibialis some inches above the tarsal point. I ha^e also recorded the attempt at formation of rete mirabile in short-legged birds, and among them a very singular case in Apteno- di/tes {Spheniscus). Among the mammalia the number of hitherto kno^vn* retia mirabilia and plexuses has been considerably increased ; the arteries of the anterior and posterior extremities of many Pachyderms are provided with them, as I have observed in the Peccary, Tajacu, Phacochoerus, Tapir, Hyrax {cnpensis and syriacus), and in the com- mon pig. I have little doubt but that anatomists, who are so very fortunate as to live near the Zoological Gardens, London, or the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, will be able in time to include among the number, the names of such grand animals as JElephas, Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, which, like many other prodigies of ' fei^ax mon- strorum Africa' (Plin.) will never come within my reach. Among the true Quadrumana, there is no rete mirabile, but a strange tendency towards the formation of one is to be found among the thumbless apes, as in Afeles, where it manifests itself in the divided aspect of the elsewhere single and undivided arteries. In the Prosimii, the collateral branches of all the main trunks jut out like a series of rays, so that a number of them have quite the appearance of tufts of tassels, a disposition which was discovered by Johannes Miiller in other animals, and denominated by him, ' Eete mirabile unipolare diffusum,' (as in Thjnnus) ; this curious origin of numerous side branches in the form of tufts or tassels, occurs in Lemur, Galago, Lichanotus, whilst in Tarsius spectrum and Stenops gracilis, true plexiform retia mirabilia occiu' in the brachial and the crural arteries. Ilitlierto retia have not been found among the Carnivora ; the first instance I saw was in the genus Viverra, where it occurs in the cutaneous branches of the crural artery ; it accompanies the saphenous nerves, and forms a very slender and pretty rete saphemun, which extends through the leg as far as the ankle. In the Marsupials plexiform retia mirabilia are deficient in the limbs, but they are found well developed in the palatin and inferior maxillary arteries. The special function of these retia appears still to be buried in obscurity, but still it may not be useless to collect thus a larger series of facts : some day or other, doubtless, they will be weighed in the balance of physiological reason. * Since tlie time of Carlisle (Pliil. Trans. 1800), who discovered them in the arm of the 81oth, they have been ol)sorvcd (by Vrolik) in Sicnops ; (by Baer) among the Whales; (by Koscnmullcr) in the Senl ; (by Allman, Kept. Brit, Afpoc. 1844) in Dasypus, and (by myself, Proceed. Imp. Acad. Vienna, vols. v. vi.) in Myi'inecophoga, Mnnis, Chlumijdophorus, Ornitlwrh>j7ichus, and 2'richecus. PEOFESSOE HYETL's ANATOMICAL KOTES. 103 11. On intervertebral Synostoses and Suturce in JFish. I have collected together from almost every quarter of the world, a large series of fish skeletons, numbering several hundi^eds. When siu-veyiug from time to time my treasures, I have been struck by the many examples occurring among them, of what, if it occurred in the human subject, would be considered a disease : I I'efer to the osseous union of a greater or lesser number of vertebra? into a solid mass, with the total disappearance of all intervertebral articulations, and of every vestige of cartilage or articular cavity, so that every ti'ace of mobility has gone. rfteiitzs TOiTOt^oq birB 'f The number of coalesced vertebrae is from two to six, and this synostosis takes place more frequently in the tail than in the trunk of the fish. When one remembers that the locomotive powers of a fish chiefly depend on the extreme flexibility of its vertebral colimm, one would think that the diminution of this flexibility by the abolition of the intervertebral articulations, would not only cause some inconveniences to the creatm-e, but even endanger its existencei^ This is, however, obviated by the fact that the confluent vertebrae are not larger than the non-confluent ones, their length being so much reduced, that the five coalesced vertebrae are not longer than one ; and a slight fraction of a non-coalesced one. It is a very remark- able sight to see such a synostotic series of vertebrae in the tail of some powerful fish; and this too, not by any means the result of pathological deformity, there being no callosity present to suggest' g,, mechanical injury, and no deposits of calcareous matter to induce us to regard the synostoses as a senile metamorphosis; for it occurs iu both old and yoiuig individuals, and in those of both sexes. The union is oftentimes so perfect that it is only by the presence of the two superior or inferior spinous processes, that we perceive that it has taken place; the intervertebral foramena appear never to be perfectly obliterated, though they are exceedingly diminished iu size. The synostosis is, without doubt, of a physiological character, and it must take place very early in life, when the length of the bodies of the vertebrae is so short, that two, three, four, or five such lengths is equal to the length of a single vertebra of a fully grown-up individual. When the increase in length is stopped, the increase in circumference continues, as in the non-synostosied vertebral bodies. This synostosis does not appear to occur in any of the short-bodied fishes. It does not occur in the short-bodied Sparoid, Moenoid, nor Squamipennate fish, nor in any Labyrinthoid, but in most of the other families it occurs the oftener, the longer the fish. In the Eel tribe (especially Gymnoius), iu the Mormi/rus {kut £^oxr]y Gymnarchus'), two, three, and even four portions of the vertebral column are affected with this vertebral synostosis. Another instance of solid and immovable vertebral imion is to be found iu the genus Ostracion, the body of these curious fish being 104 ORIGINAL ABTICLES. walled-iu by sucli a thick and almost enamelled carapace of solidly wedged plates, that it is only tlie end of the tail that appears heyond this strong coat of armour. The vertebral column has no mobility whatever, and is quite destitute of muscles ; the bodies of the vertebrae are not anchylosed, but they and their superior arches are so firmly united by sutui'es, that flexion or extension between them, or throughout the whole length of the column, is perfectly impossible. This is, perhaps, the only instance of true suturse between vertebrsB to be met with in the animal kingdom, 12, On the Arteria mediana lingiice. There is a small artery of this name, which has been overlooked by all anatomists. Ordinary injection materials will not be fine enough to demonstrate it, but the material which I make use of in my microscopic injections, answers however admirably, Diu'ing the many years I have been engaged in the preparation of anatomical injections, I have met with this artery so often, as to be able to exhibit a series (niunbering some dozens) of specimens, in which it may be seen in its difterent stages of evolution. From this little troop of human tongues we derive the following information: — The Arteria dorsalis linguae supplies the basal portion of the superior svu'face of the tongue, that portion between the papillae circumvallatae and the epiglottis, it then spreads itself into a number of branches, each of which is very fine and superficial; the posterior branches of the one side, meet with the branches from the other in the median line, at the base of the tongue; a median artery is formed after the same manner, as the two vertebral arteries unite to form the basilar artery in the cavity of the skull. The Arteria mediana linguae runs forward to the point of the angle formed by the two comerging lines of the papillae vallatae — here it either ends or divides, and surrounds the larger papillae, and is then continued on as a single vessel, which continues its onward course to the top of the tongue. This artery is of very small size, but it is situated so superficially, as to be easily seen without any preparation. It is contained in the mucous membrane of the tongue, not below it, as in all the other arteries of this organ. When the artery, in a well injected tongue, is not at once apparent, a little manipulation will soon reveal it. There are tongues whose siu-face is not very rich in filiform papillae, and tliese too, very short, so that the tongue resembles a close cut-velvet ; such tongues will show this artery without any help from the scalpel; but when the filiform papilUe are very long and densely set (such tongues are called in German, " pelzige Zungen"), the artery may be best seen and dissected out by dividing the papiUae in the middle Hue of the tongue by a pin, or better by shaving the surface of the tongue with a razor. Perhaps I have dwelt too long on a vessel, which, if wounded, would not yield three drops of blood ; but every anatomist likes to PROFESSOE HTRTl's ANATOMICAL NOTES. 105 deal sometimes in trifles, and the smaller the organ discovered by our ap])lication, the more satisfaction have we. Should science attend only to discoveries that may be saleable in the market of practical life, where would she be standing in the present day ? Among my anatomical preparations of tongues, there is one of Cynocephalus Hmnadryas, and one of Tapirus Americanus, in which the arteria mediana linguae is of very considerable size, and extends throughout the length of the tongue to apes. In Cynocephalus, it here divides into two branches, which connect themselves with the foremost twigs of the arteria profunda linguse. I find this vessel also in the tongue of Aquila ftdva. O -Sii 13. On the Rami perferantes of the anterior Tibial mid Feroneal Arteries. AYlien an isolated injection of the anterior tibial artery is made (the trunk on the dorsum pedis must be ligatured, to prevent the filling of the tibialis posterior by the large anastomosis between these two vessels, in the first intermetatarsal interspace) some small arteries will be discovered filled in the deep layer of the calf of the leg. According to the ordinary ideas, the anterior tibial artery is only destined for the muscles, &c. on the forepart of the leg, but on a closer examination, some four or five small branches ■wall be found, which perforate the interosseous ligament at almost equal distances, and reach the posterior part of the leg; they keep close to the periosteum, along which membrane they ramify, and they are joined by ofli"sets of the posterior tibial, coming to the same fibrous membrane. Tbe peroneal artery is injected with the same results ; its perfo- rating branches go across, through the interosseous ligament, to the periosteum of the anterior aspect of the tibia, and iiltimately anastomise with the periosteal branches of the tibialis antica ; the tibialis postica does not send off" perforating branches. Tliese communicating branches may be of some practical use in cases of ligature of either of the above-mentioned arteries : there is in my anatomical collection a preparation of the arteries of the fore- leg, where a communication is kept up between the trunks of the tibialis antica and peronea, by a very stout-looking vessel of about the calibre of a raven's quill. The anastomosis takes place about half-way down the leg, and the peroneal artery is suddenly augmented in volume at the sjDot where the communicating branch joins the peroneal. 106 XI. — Upon a koj^-steiped Mi'scle coisTfECTED WITH THE Orbital Periosteum of Majs^ and Mammals, and on the Musculus Kerato-ceicoideus. By Wm. Turner, M.B. (Lond.), F.RS.E., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, Uniyersity of Edinburgli.* "Whilst engaged in making a dissection, ia the hnman subject, during the winter session of last year, of the superior maxillary, or second division of the fifth cranial nerve, my attention was attracted to a pale-reddish, soft, mass, filling up the narrow chink of the spheno-maxillary fissure, and extending, from the sphenoidal fissure in the sphenoid bone, to the infra-orbital canal in the superior maxil- lary bone. It was evidently connected to the superior (ocular) as- pect of the periosteum of the orbit, and it was pierced by the orbital branch of the superior maxillary nerve, from which, as well as from the ascending branches of the spheno-palatine ganglion, it appeared to receive its supply of nerves.t It completely shut ofi" the superior maxillary nerve, with its infra-orbital continuation, from the cavity of the orbit. Since the period of making the above observation, I have availed myself of several opportunities of examiniag the same region in other subjects, and have constantly observed appearances, of a nature simi- lar to those just described. The amount of the reddish mass and the depth of its tint vai-ied slightly in difi'erent instances. Frequently, it was so pale as scarcely to attract attention, which may perhaps be the reason why it has so long been neglected by anatomists. AVhen carefully examined with the nalved eye, or, still better, with a single lens, it was seen to exhibit a fibi-ous appearance. A small portion snipped ofi" with scissors, teazed out with needles, and placed on the stage of the microscope, under a quarter inch objective, was observed to ibe composed of pale, flattened, band-like fibres, having a faintly granular aspect, and presenting indications of elongated nuclei at iatervals. From these characters I had little doubt that the struc- ture in question consisted of the non-striped form of muscular fibre. As considerable difficulty is alw^ays experienced in obtaining for examination the contents of the hxnnan orbit, in a perfectly fresh condition, I, in the next instance, proceeded to dissect the orbits of some of the more readily obtained mammals, Avith a xiew of ascertain- ing if a similar structure existed iu them. In the orbit of the sheej), I have most satisfactorily observed appearances which have fidly con- firmed the opinion of the structure already expressed. The orbit of this animal difters from that of man in possessing much less perfect walls. As a consequence of this, the orbital membrane, or periosteum, is a structure of much impoi'tance, for it stretches across the floor of * Read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 19th, 1861. t That jMcckel's ganghou sends brandies to the periosteum of tlic orbit is a fact that has long been known to anatomists, though there have been difficulties in the way of giving a satisfactory reason why such an arrangement prevails. The exis- tence of the small muscle uow described, accounts for the distribution. TFKNER ON THE ORBITAL AISTD KEEATOCEICOID MUSCLES. 107 the orbit from its outer to its inner wall, extends backwards to the optic foramen, and comj)letes the boundary of the cavity at the spot where the bony wall is wanting. If the contents of the orbit be carefully removed, and the orbital membrane examined from above, it will be seen to be a well defined structure, distinctly fibrous, and in many places having an almost tendinous-like aspect. Intimately connected with, and forming an essential part of it, is a thin layer of a pale reddish substance, which extends across the greater part of the floor of the orbit, passing back- wards to the optic foramen and sphenoidal fissure. In close contact with this structure, especially at the posterior part of the orbit, is a well-marked vascular net-work, sufficiently injected with blood to be distinctly visible. This vascular plexus constitutes a small rete mira- bile, connected with the ophthalmic artery. By removing a small por- tion of the reddish mass, teazing it out with needles luider water, and examining it with a quarter inch objective, it may be seen to be com- posed for the most part of flat, pale, non-striped fibres, collected together in bundles, having a faintly granular aspect and exhibiting decided indications of nuclei in their intei'ior. These bundles of flat fibres are mingled Tvath ordinary fibrous tissue, both white and yellow, the latter becoming more distinct after the addition of acetic acid. The pale, non-striped fibres have aU the characters of the involuntary muscular fibre. Being desirous however of ascertaining if these fibres could be resolved into their constituent fibro-cells, I adopted the plan which has been recommended by Belchert, and macerated a portion of the orbital membrane for forty-eight hours in dilute hydro- chloric acid. I then found that, by the aid of a very slight dissection, the fibres readily resolved themselves into the elongated fusiform cells of which they were composed. In no tissue which I have ever examined, consisting of the non-striped muscle, have I succeeded in obtaining more beautiful and more perfect specimens of the contrac- tile fibre-cell than in this muscle of the orbital membrane. The fusi- form shape of the cells, their size, and the elongated rod-like nucleus in the centre of each cell, gave to the texture a most characteristic appearance. I may also mention, that when the orbital muscle in the sheep Avas examined without the addition of any re-agent, besides distilled water, a number of elongated rod-like nuclei were always met with, lying free in the water surrounding the preparation, which had evidently been loosened and detached during the dissection with the needles. These nuclei corresponded in their characters to those met with in the interior of the fibro-cells. The characters which I have now enumerated render the muscular nature of the reddish tex- ture connected with the orbital membrane sufficiently clear. On referring to the authorities who have written on the structure of the orbital membrane I find that the following opinions have been expressed concerning it. Bendz* in a paper " On the orbital membrane in the domestic Mammals," describes it as distinctly fibrous, but possessing a consi- * Miiller's Archiv, 1841, p. 196. 108 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. derable quantity of a yellowish tissue, wliicli lie considers to be elastic, interpolated with it. He regards the opinion, which had been previ- ously advanced by GurJt, that the tissue was muscular, to be erroneous. Stannius* states that in those animals, in which the bony wall of the orbit is incomplete, the separation between the orbital cavity and the temj^oral fossa is mostly effected by a fibrous membrane, containing also abundant elastic tissue. He states that Sucloljjhi regarded these elastic fibres to be muscular in Bears, and that Meckel described a muscle in the orbital membrane of Ornithorynchus. Chauvemif speaks of the fibrous membrane which completes the cavity of the orbit as entirely composed of white inextensile fibres. GurltX con- siders it to be a strong fibrous membrane, with yellow elastic fibres interpolated. S. Ji£uUer,§ in a very brief communication, states that he has found flat muscular fibres in the inferior orbital fissure in man, and corresjD ending structures connected to the membrana orbitalis of mammalia. It was supposed by those, who held that the membrana orbitalis was a highly elastic and not a muscular structure, that it was through its elastic recoil that the eye-ball was re-protruded in those animals which retracted the ball through the contraction of a retractor muscle. H. Muller, again, who speaks more positively than any who have preceded him, not only of the existence of a muscle, but also of the kind of fibre of which it is composed, considers that it antago- nizes those muscles which retract the eye-ball into the socket, and that thus, the rejjrotrusion of the globe is produced, not by a mere elastic recoil but by a muscidar contraction. If this hypothesis be correct, an arrangement exists in this locality, which is certainly to be regarded as an unusual one, viz. : an involun- tary muscle acting as a direct antagonist to a vohmtary muscle. AVlie- ther the hypothesis be correct, or not, I am disposed to consider that the muscle has some especial relation to the vascidar arrangements in the orbit. Its extension backwards to the foramina through which the orbital vessels proceed, and with which it is in immediate relation, and the very abundant vascular network found in connection with it, point, I think, to some special relation between the muscle and the vessels, a relation which is not at all inconsistent with what is known of the function of non-striped muscle in other localities. Occurrence of the Musculus lyerato-cricoidews. — In a paper, entitled " Remarks on the Musculus Kerato-cricoideus (Merkel's muscle)," published in the Edinburgh Medical Journal, February, 1860, I directed attention to an account, which had been given by Dr. Carl Merkel of Leipsic (Stimm und Sprach-Organ, 1857), of a hitherto imdescribed muscle of the humau larynx. Merkel described this muscle as arising from the posterior surface of the cricoid cartilage, and extending obliquely upwards and outwards to • Lehrbuch der verglcichenden Anatomic, 1846, p. 401. •f Traite d' Anatomic Comparee, 18.57, p. 753. j Handbuch der Vcrgleicli. Auat. der Haus. Saugethierc. 1860, p. 733. § Siebold and Kollikers Zcitschrift, 1858, p. 541. TURNER ON TUE ORBITAL AND KERATOCRICOTD MUSCLES. 109 be attached to the posterior margin of the inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage. He stated that the muscle was not found in every larynx, and tliat when present it existed only on one side. In my remarks, I supplemented the description of Merkel with some additional particulars, more especially pointing out, that, al- though, as a rule, the muscle only occurred on one side, right or left as the case might be, jet that a double muscle might exist. I figm-ed an example of such a bilateral muscle, which at that time was the only one I had seen. Since then I have met with two additional cases in which a double kerato- cricoid muscle was present. One of these was especially noteworthy, for the muscle, on both sides, was more largely developed than in any previous example that had fallen under my notice. The great size of the kerato-cricoid muscle was combined with a general laryngeal muscularity. The occurrence of three examples of a double kerato-cricoid muscle, during the last tw^o years, within my o^vn ex]5erience, shows that the bilateral arrange- ment is not so imusual as was in the first instance supposed. JVote. — Since the above paper was in type, my attention has been directed, by Professor Huxley, to a communication by H. Miiller, dated Dec. 15th, 1860, entitled " On the influence of the sympathetic upon some muscles, and on the extensive occurrence of unstriped muscles in the skin in the mammalia."* As this paper throws some additional light upon the probable action of the orbital muscle I append a short abstract of it : — H. Miiller, after referring to the many puzzling questions which have arisen respecting the function of the sympathetic nerve, and its relations to the muscles supplied by it, proceeds to ask two questions : 1st. Whether and which unstriped muscles are supplied by other nerves than the sjrmpathetic ? 2nd. Wliether and which transversely-striped muscles are under the influence of the sympathetic ? In answer to the first, the action of the oculo-motor nerve upon the unstriped fibres of the iris cannot be doubted : the vagus also acts upon unstriped muscles, and the experiments of Schifl" have shown that the greater part of the vascular nerves are not connected with the sympathetic. The second question may be most effectively answered by consi- dering the effect produced upon the eye-ball by division or irritation of the cervical sympathetic. Miiller, for this purpose, refers to the experiments of Bernard, E. Wagner, and Brown- Sequard ; the general tendency of which is to show, that division of the cervical sympathetic produces narrowing of the paljiebral fissure, retraction of the bidb, projection of the nictitating membrane and narrowing of the anterior nares and the mouth. Irritation of the nerve by gal- vanization, on the other hand, produces increase of the opening of * Uebcr den Einfluss des Sympathicus auf einige Muskeln, &c. Von H, Miiller, " Vevliandlungeu der Phys. Med. Gesellschaft in WiJrzburg." 110 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. the lids, projection of the bulb, retraction of the nictitating mem- brane, relaxation of several facial muscles. Respecting the causes which produced these changes there was some difference of opinion. R.Wagner could scarcely conceive that any force, save the contraction of the two obliqui, could produce projection of the eye-ball, and yet he asks, "how could these transversely-striped muscles receive excito-motory fibres from the sympathetic?" Brown- Sequard, again, considered that retraction of the bulb, after section of the nerve, was produced by the active contraction of the retractor and recti, and that its reprojection by subsequent irritation was a reposition. Schiff regarded the projection of the bulb as due to the action of the obliqui : the movements of the lids he considered to be passi-\e, and due to those of the bulb. Eemak, on the other hand, believed that the narrowing of the palpebral fissure was due to a relaxation of the levator palpebra? supe- rioris, accompanied by a spasmodic contraction of the orbicularis. Moreover, he conceived that the sympathetic acted upon the volun- tary muscles of the Hds about the eye. Muller considers that it is now no longer necessary to discuss the various probabilities respecting the influence of the sympathetic upon the voluntary muscles of the eye, as a complete series of unstriped muscles have now been observed, which will serve as a foundation for explaining the movements in question. These muscles consist of three divisions : — 1st. In the oi'bital cavity of mammals, a membrane (membrana orbitalis), consisting of imstriped muscles with elastic tendons, exists, which, by irritation of the cervical sympathetic, projects the contents of the orbit, especially the bulb, forwards. Eetraction is produced by the transversely-striped retractor. In man, the orbital muscle is much reduced in size, and the retractor is wanting, so that a distiuct projection of tlie bulb does not follow irritation of the symj)athetic, as Wagner and H. Muller himself have observed. 2nd. The projection of the nictitating membrane in mammals is mostly due to the retractor bulbi under the influence of the N. abducens. Its withdrawal depends on some unstriped muscles which are under the influence of the sympathetic. In hares, how- ever, the withdrawal is due to a transversely strij^ed muscle, which is not supplied by the spnpathetic but by the oculo-motorius. In man, the lid and its muscles are rudimentaiy. 3rd. The upper and lower lid possess in man, and ia very many mammals, unstriped muscles, which have the power of drawing them back. They are more feeble in the upper thai) the lower lid, so that by irritation of the sympathetic the latter is drawn back in a more marked manner than the former. Narrowing of the palpebral fissure, after section of the cervical syuipathetic, depends upon relaxation of these nmscles. Yet recession of the eye-ball may depend upon relaxation of the orbital muscle. Muller, then, concludes that the movements occasioned by experimenting on the cervical sympatlietic, are not such as to entitle us to infer an influence of that nerve upon voluntary striped muscle. lie also considers that the movements TUENEE ON THE OEBITAL AND KEKATOCETCOID MUSCLES. Ill about the nose and mouth, said by Bernard to be produced by section of the sympathetic, if they do take place, are owing to the presence of unstriped cutaneous muscles. Miiller next inquires into the existence of unstriped muscles in the skin of the ear. He has occasionally found, on galvanizing the cervical sympathetic in cats, that a movement of the hairs growing upon the skin at the entrance of the concha, has taken place. Tliis experiment has, how^ever, frequently failed both in cats and other animals. A careful examination of the skin of the part did not giA'e any indications of unstriped muscles, but very distinct muscles were seen connected to the hair follicles. He considers these experiments of interest, as they appear to indicate whence the muscles of the hair follicles receive their nerves. Owing to the movement of the hairs being limited to a very small locality, during the irritation of the sympathetic, one must suppose that only a very small part of the unstriped muscular apparatus of the skin of the cat can be regulated by the cervical sympathetic. XII. — Note sue l'E]S"cepe:ale de e'Ceakg-outakg, par J. L. C. Schroeder van der Kolk et W. Yrolik.* [By the kindness of the distingnished authors of tliis essay, we are enabled to lay it before the readers of the present number of the Natural History Review ; wherein it fitly takes its jjlace, as an important link in the chain of evidence by which the baselessness of the three assertions, that the " posterior lobe," the " posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle," and the "hippocampus minor," are structures " peculiar to " or " characteristic of" the human brain, has been placed beyond the possibility of cavil. The statements in the paper to which MM. Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik refer in theu' opening sentence, were sub- stantially refuted in the essay " On the Zoological Relations of Man to the Lower Animals," published in the number of this Review for Jamian', 1861 ; and v/ere so obviousl}', either irrelevant or incompatible with fact, that we deemed them undeserving of further criticism. But, for MM. Schroeder van der Kolk and "Vrolik, this singular brochure had an importance, which its scientific contents could not confer upon it. For though these eminent anatomists declare them- selves decided opponents of all forms of the doctrine of progressive development, they are above all, lovers of truth ; and therefore, at whatever risk of seeming to lend support to views which they dislike, when, in that paper and elsewhere, they found their facts denied, their words misquoted, and their very figures mis- interpreted, they felt it their duty to take the first opportunity of pubhcly repu- diating the abuse of their authoritj^, iu a formal note addressed to the learned Academy of which they are members. 3ijf^i>> As none of our readers, who are interested in the question, are likely to be unacquainted with French, we content ourselves with accurately reproducing the text and its accompanying plate ; a course, which in such a case as this, has its obvious recommendations. — T. H. H.] Monsieur Eichard Owenf vient de publier un memoire sur les caracteres anatomiques du cerveau de I'homme et des singes. Pre- * Extrait des comptes rendus de 1' Academic Roj'ale des Sciences, Sectiou Sciences Exactes, Vol. XIII. Amsterdam. t R. Owen. On the Cerebral characters of Man and the Ape in Annals and ilagaziiie of Natural History, 3d Series, Vol. VII. No. 42, July 1861, p. 456. 112 ORIGINAL ARTICLES. occupe dc la question remise sur le tapis par les aiiteurs des Vestiges of Creation et de la Natural Selection, et anime peut-etre par la poleniiqiie, qui en a ete le resultat, cet eminent naturaliste a voulu prouver par des faits anatomiques, que I'espece Homme n'a pas pu provenir de I'espece Singe. Chercliant ces faits principalement dans la sti'ucture du eer\^eau, notre honorable confrere a cru de son devoir de reproduire les dessius de feu Tiedemann pour le cerveau d'un negre* et les notres pour le cerveau du Chinipansef, afin de fairs voir qu'il y a une difference prononcee entre rencephale de I'homme le moins developpe et celui de ces singes superieurs, que Ton nomme anthropomorphes. — Ces faits, ajoute-t-il, gagnent en im- portance, si Ton considere qu'ils ont ete publies bien avant que la transmutation des especes fut devene une question scientifique, par consequent sans y avoir egard, et probablement aussi sans que les auteurs aient songe a la possibilite qu'une telle liypotliese put etre emise imjour. Monsieur Owen nous fait I'lionneur d'y joindre quelques paroles bienveillantes sur I'exactitude de nos dessins, qu'il a pu apprecier en les comparant avec les dissections qu'il a faites du cerveau du Chimpanse, de I'Orang-outang et du Grorille ; le cervelet du Gorille, que nous n'avons pas disseque, lui parait proportionelle- ment plus gi'and que celui des deux autres anthropomorplies, et il en deduit I'etonnante force muscnlaire de cet animal. Jusque la nous n'avons qn'a nous feliciter d'un accord scientiSque, dont nous sommes heureux et fiers. Malheureusement im pen plus loin, notre illustre confrere parait s'etre laisse enti'ainer par son desir de combattre la theorie de M. Darwin, et, si nous ne nous trompons fortement, il s'est fourvoye. Pour prouver que le cerveau du negre s'eleve sans transition et d'xuie maniere brusque avidessus de celui des singes anthropomorphes, M. Owen affirme que le lobe posterieur de I'hemisphere, la corne postcrieure du ventricule lateral, et dans celle- ci I'eminence, que Ton nomme pes Hippocampi minor, qui existent tons dans le cerveau du negre, manquent chez ces singes. II ajoute que I'absence de ces parties offre un caractere bien tranche et meme des plus importants, pour distinguer le cerveau des quadrumanes de celui de I'homme. Afin de bien preciser, il se sert des jiaroles sui- vantes, que nous avons cru devoir traduire. " Pour les definitions concises, dont on se sert dans les systemes zoologiques pour caracteriser les groupes, il est avant tout necessaire de bien definir les termes. J'ai en soin delafaire dans mon memoire sur la classification primaire des mammiferes+ d'apres les difterences * 'V. Tiedemann. On the Brain of the Negro compared with that of the Euro- pean and the Orang-outan in Philoso/Mc. Trans, year 1836. t Schroeder van der Kolk en W. Vrolik. Ontleedkundige Vcrhandeling over dc gedaantc en hct maakscl der herscnen van den Chinipan.se, in Verl). der Eerste Klnsse vim hct. Kvninklijk Nedvrl. lastituut, 3e llccks, Ecrstc Dccl, LI. 2C3. Amstenhuu, 1849. % V. On the Characters, Principles of Division and Primary Groups of the class Mammalia in Jonriiul of' the Proceedintjs of the Linnaun iiocitty. Vol. II. No. 5, June 21, Ao. 1857. KOTE SUE l'eNC^PHALE DE l'oRANQ-OUTANG. 113 specialea du cerveau. Le terme du lobe posterieur y avait primitive- ment uu sens uu peu vague. Avec M.M. Cruveilhier, Todd et d'autres, je ne recounaissais pas de lianite naturelle entre le lobe moyen ou temporal et le lobe posterieur ou occipital de I'hemispliere du cerveau humain. Par consequent, je ine vis force de prendre mon point de depart tant de la structure interne, que de la position relative des parties. D'apres cela j'ai nomrae lobe posterieur celui qui recouvre le tiers posterieur du cervelet et se prolonge au dela de celui-ci." Suivant ce raisonnement nous serious coupables d'une fausse in- terpretation, en nommant lobe posterieur une partie du cerveau, qui ne se prolonge pas autanc et qui ne contiendrait pas de corne ventri- culaire posterieure. M. Owen le dit d'une maniere implicite, en ajoutant : " neanmoins " je n'ai aucvui doute, que mes confreres faillibles n'aient dit la verite, " telle quails Ventendent, en aiBrmant que les singes d'un ordre supe- " rieur out uu lobe posteriem* a I'hemisphere de leur cerveau, une " corne posterieur dans leur ventricule lateral et dans celle ci un pes " Hippocampi minor ; mais de mon cote, je crois aussi prononcer une " verite strictement scientifique d'accord avec les definitions de ces *' parties, en affirmant qu'elles ne sont propres {peculiar) qu'a I'espece " liumaine." Ces paroles, publiees au mois de Juin 1861, paraissent etre une reponse a uu memoire, publie au mois de Janvier de la meme annee, par M. Huxley.*) Ce savant, qui nous fait I'lionneur de nommer uotre travail de 1849, one of the most valuable memoirs on the cerebral organisation of the higher Apes that has been yet written, deduit de nos observations et de nos planches justement le contraire de ce que M. Owen y a vu. M. John Marshall, qui vient apres M.M. Huxley et Owen, insiste sur cette singuliere controverse, en citant nos planches " so " differently interpreted just now, being equally quoted to shoiv the " PRESENCE and the absence in the quadrumanous brain, of the same " parts, viz. the posterior lobes, the posterior cornu and the hippocampus " minor.'' f H fait quelques reflexions sur nos dessins, sur lesquelles nous revieudrons plus tard, mais il y reconnait toutes les parties, dont M. Owen nie I'existence chez les singes. Outre cela, il donne une belle photographie du cerveau du Chimpanse, dans laquelle U les montre toutes. Nous devons encore citer M. Gleorge Eolleston,^ veuu apres * Huxley. On the Zoological Relations of Man with the Lower Animals, in Natural History Review, No. I. January, 1861, p. 69. London. f On the Brain of a young Chimpanzee. By John Marshall. In Natural History Review, No. III. July, 1861. London. X G. Eolleston. On the Affinities of the Brain of the OrangUtang, in Natural History Review, No. II, April, 1861. N. H. R.— 1862. I 114 OBIOINAL ARTICLES. M. Huxley et avant M. Marshall, qui recoimait ces parties et les decrit chez I'Orang-outang. II parait que rannee 1861 a ete funeste en Angleterre aux Cliim- panses et aux Orangs, et que la question meme de leur organisation cerebrale a bien vivemeut emu les esprits. L'accord d'opiuion qui reoTie entre nous et ces trois auteurs nous flatte et nous liouore. Nous nous rejouissons de la faeilite qu'offrent les Jardins Zoologiques etablis partout aujourd'hui, et de I'excellent esprit qui anime leurs directeurs. Une erreur, qui se serait perpetuee autrefois, est mainte- nant bien vite eclaircie. En comparant les paroles de M. Owen avec I'appui unanime donne a nos travaux pas trois iiommes eminents, nous ne nions j)as que nous en sommes extremement frapp es et profoudement affliges. D'aprea les louanges, donnees a I'exactitude de nos dessins, nous ne nous attendions pas au reproclie d'avoir meconnu le caractere ana- tomique du cerveau des singes superieiu's ou antliroponiorplies. Nous avons represente dans nos planches les parties que M. Owen refuse au cerveau du Chimpanse ; nous les avons decrites dans le texte de notre memoire. M. Owen nous loue de notre exactitude, et par une contradiction in adjecto, d uie chez les singes I'existence des parties memes, que de son aveu, nous y axu-ions si bien decrites et ei bien representees. Si nous avons bien compris la phrase, dans laquelle il enveloppe un dementi un pen voile, c'est sur I'uiterpreta- tion qu'il nous attaque. II s'agit d'eclaircir celle-ci et de la defendre. Cette defense est devcnue d'une certaine importance, depuis que la pretendue absence du lobe posterieur aux hemispheres du cerveau des singes est devenue im des arguments, que Ton oppose a I'hypo- these de la transformation des especes, theorie que Ton doit a M. Darwin, et qui, quoique connue seulement depuis environ deux ans, jette deja un eclat plus vif que sa soeur afnee, vieillie sous le nom de Vestiges of Creation. II y a entre elles un trait de famille ; mais la cadette se glorifie d'un nom univerfsellement respecte, I'ainee se cache sous le voile de Tanonyme. L'histoire nous apprend que de telles theories fi-appent et seduiseut surtout les esprits jeimes et pleins d'avenir. Elles reparaissent de temps a autre et accompagnent prcsque toujours les tourmentes politiques ct religieuses. line fatalite, qui s'explique par la nature meme de la lutte, lui donne toujours un caractere d'animosite tres vive et presque toujours personelle. Un desir trop ardent de vaincre enleve aux antagonistes I'esprit calme, qui lea dirige dans leurs autres ti'avaux. lis ne se donnent pas le temps de delier le noeud ; leur impatience leur fait croire qu'ils n'ont qu'^ le couper. Une phrase trcs forte, par la- quelle M. Agassiz definit la theorie Darwinicnue en fait preuve ; il la nomme une erreur scientifique, fausse dans les faits, non scientifique dans sa methode et peraicieuse (mischievous^ dans sa tendance. M. Darwin est un homme trop eminent pour meritcr une accusation teUement formidee. On pent regretter qu'une imagination trop vivo, une faeilite de conception qui eblouit plutot qu'elle n'eclaire, en NOTE SUE l'ETTCEPHALE DE l'oRANO-OUTAKO. 115 le poussant clans le labyrluthe des hypotlieses, lui ait fait quitter le champ des observations oCi I'on aimait taut a le suivre, mais on ne lui contestera jamais im talent hors de Hgne, ni un savoir aussi profond qu'etendu. Cette digression fait voir que nous ne sommes pas partisans d& la tlieorie qvii porte le nom de son auteur. Mais s'il faut la combattre, nous desirous que ce soit par des arguments a I'abri de tout reproebe et par des faits clairs, evidents, irrecusables. Sans cela on court risque de faire tort au systeme meme, que Ton Teut defendre. Nous craignons que M. Owen ne soit tombe dans cette faute. — Si nous avions commis une erreur, soit d' observation, soit d'interpre- tation, nous serious heureux de pou\ar I'avouer, en cbercbaut notre excuse dans ce qu'il nomme ime faillibilite que nous admettons et reconnaissons en toute bumilite, et nous trouverions en meme temps notre consolation dans Tidee, que cette errem- eut procure un argu- ment de plus contre une hypothese qui nous deplait. Mais, a notre regret, nous ne pouvons nous executer avec cette bonne grace. Nous avons revu nos dessins et nos preparations de I'annee 18-19. Nous reconnaissons avec M. Ovren, que les dessins sont exacts. Non satisfaits de cette approbation, nous avons repete, au mois d'Aout dernier, la dissection d'un cerveau d'Orang-outang, mort au Jardiu Zoologique d' Amsterdam, que nous devons a la generosite de M. "Westerman et a la courtoisie de notre collegue M. Van Geuna. Nous soumettons a votre appreciation, messieurs, la dissection du ventricule lateral gaucbe de ce cerveau, et nous osous esperer, que les anatomistes qui assistent a cette seance, n'y meconnai trout ni un lobe posterieur a I'bemisphere, ni une corne posterieure au ventricule lateral, ni une eminence dans cette corne, eminence que nons croyons avoir le droit de uommer un indice de pes Hippocampi minor.* Quant a la definition du lobe posterieur, nous ne sommes pas d'accord avec notre honorable confrere sur I'absence de limite entre le lobe moyen et le lobe posterieur de I'bemisphere. Nous trouvons entre ceux-ci un sillon transversal, formant une ligne de demarcation, tout aussi distiucte chez le Chimpanse et I'Orang, que chez I'homme. Pour voir ce sillon, il s'agit de bien enlever la pie mere, ce qui n'est pas toujours facile. A vrai dire, ce lobe posterieur ou occipital ne se prolonge pas autant que chez I'homme ; il ne recouvre pas si bien le cervelet, du moins il ne le cache pas completement, surtout vers les cotes : mais il n'y a rien la dedans, qui nous empeche de lui donner le nom qui * En parcourant le proces-verbal de la seance du 28 Sept. 1861, public dans nos Comptes rerulus, on ven-a que la presence des parties contestees y a ete uiiiversello- ment recoiuiue par les anatomistes presents a la seance. Le seul doute, qui soit reste, se rapporte au pes Hippocampi minor. La preparation etait deja conservee depuis deux mois environ dans de I'esprit de vin et Ton sait que cette liqueur conser- vatrice raccornit toujours la siibstance cerebrale. A I'etat frais I'indice du petit pied d'Hippocampc etait plus prononce que main- tenant. 116 OBIGINAL AKTICLES. lui est du. D'ailleurs il ne faut pas oublier, que lorsqu'on retire Ic cerveau du crane, il ne garde pas ses proportions normales. II s'afFaisse par le poids des hemispheres qui, en s'ecartant, decouvrent en partie le cervelet. M. G-ratiolet et les auteurs Anglais, que nous venous de citer a la page 113, font ce reproche k nos planclies de I'anuee 1849. — Ce reproche est merite. On devrait maintenir ou remettre le cerveau dans le crane, pour le dessiner et, en tout cas, corriger les proportions du dessin d'apres un moule pris de la surface interne du crane, methode nouvelle, que nous devons a M.M. Wagner et LucAE et dont nous nous servirons a I'avenir. Par rapport au developpement du cervelet, nous ne croyons pas faire une chose inutile en rappelant que, d'apres les mesures que nous avons publiees en 1819, le cervelet du Chimpanse et de I'Oraug-outang est propor- tionellement plus grand que celui de rhomme. Cela doit avoir une certaine influence sur la maniere dont il se trouve pour une partie a decouvert chez ces animaux, qui ont les lobes occipitaux moius etendus que ceux de I'homme. L'existeuce de ce lobe occipital chez les singes n'est pas une decouverte nouvelle dont nous puissious nous attribuer le merite ; Tiedemann I'a deja represente en 1821 chez le maimon {Macacus nemesfrimis* Cuvier dit que chez les singes, les hemispheres se prolongeiit en arriere, comme chez I'homme, pour y former les lobes posterieurs, qui posent sur le cervelet. Nous avons indi(jue un lobe posterieur dans le cerveau presque lisse du Stenops. f D'ailleurs ce lobe ne manque pas toujours chez d'autres mammiferes. Tiedemann decrit de petits lobes occipitaux chez le Phoque, et, ce qui est plus frappaut eiicore, il les indique et il les depeint chez le Dauphin, J M. G-ratiolet dont personne ne meconnaitra I'autorite, dit§ " que " dans I'homme et dans les singes, se detache de la partie posterieure " de I'arc du ventricule lateral, un prolongement un peu recourbe en " dedans, comme la corne d'ux Rhinoceros ou comme une grift'e. Ce " prolongement est la corne posterieure ou occipitale du ventricule " lateral. Ce prolongement est fort remarquable ; dans les singes, il " a une grandeur enorme, eu egard a I'ensemble du ventricule lateral, " dont Tare est fort petit." Ainsi il est e\ident, que nous ne sommes pas les seuls qui attri- buent un lobe posterieur aux hemispheres du cerveau des singes. Si dans le regne des faits I'erreur est possible, il est heureusement tout aussi facile de la refuter. Nous avons cm de notre devoir de defendre la science contre une interpretation fausse, dont I'invasiou • Iconcs cerebri simiarum et qnonindam animalium rariorum. Hcidelbergae, 1821. t Schrocder van der Kolk et W. Vrolik. Keeherches d'anatomie compareo snr le genre Stenops d'llliger, dans Bijdrafien tot de Dicrhunde, uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Gcnootschap Natura Artis Manigtra, I. D. Amsterdam," 1848 — 18.54. X UiUersuchuiKjen ilhfr die Natur des Memehen, der Thiere und der PJlanzen B. II. S. 258. J);u-m.sta(lt, 1827. § Anatomie comparee du systeme nerveux. Tome II. p. 74et75, Paris, 1839—1857. NOTE SUE l'eNCEPHALE DE l'oRANG-OUTANG. 117 la menacjait sous le patronage d'un nom justement celebre. Mais que Ton ne s'y trompe pas. C'est a tort qu'on ira clierclier dans notre refutation un argument pour la transmutation des especes. n y a sans donte, avec une grande diversite dans les details, p. e. I'ordre et la forme des circonvolutious, la proportion des hemispheres, la largeur des lobes frojitaux etc., il y a, disons nous, une certaine conformite generale entre I'homnie et les singes ; leur cerveau se rapproche du cerveau humain ; I'homme n'a rien dans son encephale qui manque absolument aux singes, mais en tout cela nous ne voyons aucune raison pour nous faire admettre que I'homme soit un singe perfectionne. Plus nous etudions I'organisation des animaux et plus nous nous sentons affermis dans notre conviction, qu'il y a parmi eux des types fixes, representes, quoique dans beau- coup de nuances bieu A'ariees, par des animaux, qui se ressemblent sous certains rapports. Mais nous n'y ti'ouvons jamais I'image d'une eehelle ascendante, continue, non interrompue, mais plutot celle d'un reseau. Nous ne connaissons aucune espece de singe forinant une transition directe a I'homme. Si on voulait a toute force faire naitre I'espece homme de I'espece singe, il faudrait cliercher sa tete dies ces petits singes, qui se groupent autour des Sajous et des Ouistitis, sa main chez le Chimpanse, son squelette chez le Siamang, son cerveau chez I'Orang. Si on n'a pas egard a la difterence des dents, il est evident que I'aspect general du crane d'un Sajou, d'un Ouistiti, ou de quelqu'autre espece congenere ressemble bien plus, quoique en miniatiu'e, au crane de I'homme, que celui d'un Gordle, d'un Chimpanse ou d'lm Orang adultes ; le carpe du Chimpanse a la meme nombre d'os que celui de I'homme, celui de I'Orang au contraire se distingue par ce singulier os intermediaire, que Ton retrouve chez tons les autre singes ; le squelette du Siamang par le sternum, par la forme du thorax, par les cotes et le bassin, ressemble bien plus au squelette humain, que celui du Grorille, du Chimpanse et de I'Orang ; nos recherches ont montre que le cerveau de I'Orang se rapproche plus du cerveau humain que celui du Chimpanse. II faudrait done clier- cher les traits de la famille humaine chez quatre Primates difterents, dont un d'Amerique, deux d'Afrique, un troisieme de Borneo, un quatricnie de Sumatra ; les parents ]iriniitifs de I'homme seraient par consequent tellement disperses, qu'il devient par la bien difficile de croii'e a une telle souche. En terminant, nous prions 1' Academic de vouloir nous accorder la faveur de publier dans ses comptes-rendus le memoire et la planche que nous avons eu riiouneiu" de lui soumettre. Tltreclit et Amsterdam, le 28 Septembre 1861. 118 On DimorpTiism in Prmmla. — Mr. C. Darwin has examined tlie sexual relations of the two forms in the Cowslip, Primrose and other species of Primula, called by florists ' pin-eyed ' and ' thrum-eyed.' The one (pin-eyed) mth the style reaching beyond the anthers to the mouth of the corolla-tube, which is slightly widened above, stigma globular and rough, the pollen-grains small and oblong in form, and perfecting comparatively few seeds : the other (thrinu-eyed) with a short style, and smooth, depressed stigma, falling short of the anthers, pollen-grains spherical, corolla-tube of uniform diameter, and per- fecting a larger number of seeds than the former. Between these forms four crosses can be tried : — viz. the stigma of the long-styled form, fertilized by its own pollen and by that of the short-styled, — and the stigma of the short-styled by its own pollen and that of the long-styled form. Fertilization by own-form pollen Mr. Darwin calls ' homomorphic,' by pollen of dissimilar form ' heteromor- phic' Experiment showed the heteromorphie (in which insect agency is absolutely essential) to be much more fertile than the homomorpliic union, in which the forms were as sterile as are many distinct species when crossed. The object of the dimorphic condition Mr. Darwin considers to be to favour the sexual union of distinct individuals of the same species. Other similar cases of dimorphism were named in five distinct Natui-al Orders.— i>irtw. Soc. Proc. Nov. 21, 1861. A letter, dated Sept. 12, 1861, has been received from Mr. Mann, Botanical Collector to the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, giving an account of his ascent of the Peak of St. Thomas, (7,500 ft.) in the island of that name in the Gulf of Guinea. The ascent is described as extremely diflicult. Mr. Maim found a tropical forest vegetation ascending to the very summit. Glei- cheina dichotoma, a shore plant at Fernando Po groAvs upon the top, and Eluis growing in that island only to 1000 ft. was found in St. Thomas to 3000. A Conifer {Fodocarpus) and an Anthocleista were also collected, On Clarence Peak, Fernando Po (10,700 ft.) 55 tem- perate plants were collected by Mr. Mann at and above an elevation of 5000 ft. This indefatigable collector expects shortly to ascend the Cameroon Mountain on the main land (13,000 ft.) Note on tlie Hahits of Vipers.— 1\iQ parental instincts of most cold-blooded_ Vertebrata lead them no farther than to deposit their eggs in a suitable locality. As a general rule, we may say of them, in the beautiful words of Job, " She leavcth her eggs in the ciirth,— And warmcth them in the dust, Porgetting that the foot may crush them,— Or tliat the wild beast may break them. blieis hardened against Her young ones,— A,'? tliougli thcv were not liers." NOTE ON THE HABITS OF VIPERS. 119 But this rule, though geueral, is not without exception. The males of the genus Oasterosteus (Stickleback) build a nest, watch over the eggs, take care that they shall have frequent supplies of fresh water, and do not leave the young ones till they are able to take care of themselves.* Several species of Toads and Erogs attach their eggs to their bodies and so carry them about ; while the fishes of the genus Bagrtis\ have a still more curious habit, for in this case the males carry the eggs about in their mouth, and retain them there till the yoimg obtain some size. It is supposed that the eggs are disgorged when the fish is about to feed, and then are taken in again, because in the mass of eggs, one or two belougiug to different species have oc- casionally been Ibund, In the common Viper the young remain with their mother some time after birth, and it has been frequently asserted that on any alarm they run into her mouth for safety. Though not altogether without analogy, this habit is so extraordi- nary, that the statement has always been regarded with some suspi- cion, and the question is summed up by Dr. Bell, as follows : — " Tliere are on record numerous statements, of various degrees of " credibility, of the cm'ious fact that the female Viper allows her " young ones to retreat into her stomach for safety, when alarmed by " any sudden danger. These statements generally declare that the " mother, on the occurrence of any such emergency, opens her mouth, " and that the young immediately enter it, and pass into the sto- " mach, where they remain protected until the danger be passed, or " the Viper has gained a place of safety : it is added, in many cases, " that, on killing tlie mother, the youug have been found within the " stomach, and on being liberated, have at once resumed all their " former activity. The question has been re-opened of late by the " publication of several communications in a most respectable peri- " odical, to which the reader is referred. J It will be observed, that " with one exception, the writers have given their statements only on " hearsay, and that in the one case which is given from personal ob- " servation, the circumstance is stated to have occurred when the " writer was a boy. The first impression made on the mind of one " accustomed to compare evidence with probability, and to weigh " the value of assertions by the rules of analogy, is, that the mis- " take, if it be one, may have arisen from the viviparous character of " the animal ; but the opinion is so general, the mass of evidence so " considerable, and the details in many cases so minute, as scarcely " to allow of the question being thus summarily disposed of; and in " this state of doubt upon so interesting a subject, it is pei'haps " better to await the results of direct experiments, which might be " readily made in any locality where these reptiles abound." — Bell's British Be^tiles, p. G9. • See Mr. Wariiigton's very interesting papers iu the Aiui. and Mag. of Nat. Hist, for 1852 and 1855. •j- Wyman, American Journal, 1859. t See several Nos. of the Gardener's Chronicle, in April 1848, &c. 120" MISCELLANEA. , TLougli twelve years have elajisecl since the above passage was written, the subject remains as doubtful as ever ; fear of their poisou having probably been the means of sa\ang the Vipers from the " direct experiment" here suggested. The following letter will there- fore, I feel sure, be read with interest. The writer is a gi'eat friend of mine : he is a son of Mr. Greorge Warde Norman, one of our greatest political economists, and in his testimony the utmost re- liance may be placed. He writes to me as follows : — " Bromley Common, 23rcl Oct. 1861. " Dear Lubbock, — The following are the particulars which you requested me to send to you. On the 2nd of September I was out shooting with our game- keeper. In walking through a wood, the keeper, who was a shori, dis- tance behind me, noticed a viper on the ground. It was a little over two feet long, but was not accurately measured. The keeper affirms that directly the viper was disturbed, he saw two young ones run into its mouth ; he is convinced that he saw two, and thinks, but is not certain, that he saw three. He put his foot on it, cut its head off, and brought the body to me. We commenced skinning it by turning the skin inside out, and drawing it off from head to tail. On partially removing the skin, we could see several young ones inside, which were all moving about and seemed as lively as possible. In order to preserve them in the con- dition in which they then were, we drew the skin on again and tied up the orifice of the neck. On arriving at home, I opened the body and found that all the young vipers, 11 in number, were dead, as I imagined from suffocation. The keeper says, that he has several times before seen young vipers when alarmed run into their mother's mouth for safety. Yours sincerely, PuiLiP Norman." Assuming, as I feel no hesitation in doing, that Mr. Norman's statement is thoroughly correct, the only remaining question would be whether the young vipers thus found in the body of their mother, were the same which the keeper saw, or supposes that he saw, run- ning into her mouth. My friend, not being an anatomist, does not venture to state that the young were in the stomach, but he feels no doubt that this was the case ; and, if they had been in the ovidiict some traces of the foetal membranes would probably have been perceived. I shall be happy to forward the specimens to any Na- turalist who may wish to examine them. The young ones themselves are eleven in number ; between six and seven inches in length ; and were about to moult, a new layer of scales being fully formed under the outer skin. I am unaware what is the condition and size of young Anpurs, when they first see the light, but I do not imagine that Ibhey could be of so large a size. I cannot but express a hope that Mr. Norman, having thus sho^vn his interest in Natiu-al History, and his power of observing, will not allow this to be his last contribution to our science. THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. %f^VUlVS. XIII. — The Writings of M. Pabre. Obseetattons sur les mceijrs des Cerceris. Aim. des Sci. Nat. Tome IV. Ser. 4. Etude sur l'insttjStct et les Metamorphoses des SraEGiEisrs. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome VI. Ser. 4. Memoire sur l'IItpermetamouphose et les mceurs des Meloi'des. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome Vll. Ser. 4. Eeciierches sur l'Anatomie des Organes Eeproducteurs et SUR LE Deyeloppement DES Mtriapodes. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Tome III. Ser. 4. Miss Martineau in lier " Eastern Life" expresses lier wonder that after a co-existence of GOOO years or more we cannot understand the language of a single animal. But how few men are there who make any effort to do so. Even among naturalists, how large a pro- portion catch but to hill, and study only the dead. In Entomology we have had but two liubers, nor can we be said yet to understand thorougMy the habits of a single insect. The most startling dis- covery of the last few years relates to a species which has been domesticated from time immemorial. Gladly, therefore, do we wel- come an Entomologist who steps boldly out of the common path; in some cases, indeed, we may feel disposed to think that M. Fabre's enthusiasm leads him to attribute to his favourites, feelings of which we can hardly suppose them capable ; but we cannot criticise what we have enjoyed so much, and the error, if it be one, throws an additional charm over his writings. Out of the many species whose manners and customs are described by M. Eabre, we must confine ourselves to three ; and even then we cannot in so short an abstract do anything like jvistice to the wit and brilliancy of the original. N. H. R — 1862. K 122 EEVIEWS. In the mefQoir which we have placed at the head of this article, M. Fabre devotes himself to the genus Cerceris. In the latter part of September, this insect, which is one of the solitary wasps, begins to hollow out a sort of gallery in the earth — horizontal or vertical, according to the species— and to enclose therein her progeny, together with the food destined for their future support. She shews herself in no wise particular as to the nature of the soil in which she works, provided it be pei'fectly dry, and exposed during a great part of the day to the heat of the sim. She takes ingenious advantage of any projection in the ground, or bimch of weeds, under the shelter of which she can pierce her gallery, and thus add as it were a peristyle to her dwelling. Though the Cercerides do not form themselves into communities, M. Fabre observes that they generally choose to live near each other, and the nests lie close together, to the number of eight or ten. It is curious to watch the labours of these insects in forming their habitations, and the patience with which they drag up successive heavy loads of sand, and eject it from the entrance of their holes. The sight of their tiny jets of sand constantly recurring attracted the attention of M. Pabre, in the first instance, to these Little excavators. He watched them, resting from their labours and basking in the sun, the females often flying to the surrounding trees, pursued by the males, who hover about, idle spec- tators of the toil carried on before their eyes. Fights frequently ensue between them for the possession of some particular female, who sits an apparently unconcerned beholder of the struggle for supremacy, and, when the victory is decided, quietly flies away in company with the conqueror. The males, which are only half the size of the females, do not condescend even to enter the galleries which are in course of excavation ; and neither by carrying a single grain of sand, nor by assisting in the subsequent troublesome task of collecting provisions for the young, do they share in the industry around them. Having completed the nests for the reception of her eggs, it now remains for the thoughtful parent to provide the nourish- ment requisite for her young, when they shall emerge from the shell. The victim chosen for this pmposeis a large Curculio (Cleomis optJial' miens). On her return from a foraging expedition, the Cerceris may be seen flying homewards, heavily weighed down by her prey, which fche embraces, the underside of her body opposed to that of her victim. Alighting at a short distance from her hole, she proceeds to drag the Cleonus painfully up to the entrance of its prison, often slipping back, and rolling with it down among the loose grains of sand, only to recommence undauntedly her toilsome ascent. M. Fabre had the curiosity to weigh both the Cerceris and her prey ; the first averaged 1.50 milligi'ammes, the second 255 ; a fact which would render the flight of the Cerceris a matter of considerable surprise to any one not aware of the great muscular power possessed by insects. Either by robbing her nest of the prey, or by attacking the Cerceris at the moment when she arrived with her booty, and forcing THE WEITIXGS OF M. FABRE. 123 her by means of a straw to relinqiiisli it, M. Faljre succeeded in possessing himself of about 100 Cu-rculios. Tlie insect to which he dii-ected his attention is not the Cerceris Bupresticida, which attacks indiscriminately all the Buprestes, but one of its congeners, and more exclusive, apparently, in its tastes ; as all the Cui'culios he examined belonged, vdila. one single exception, to the same species. It is difficult to see why, of four kinds of Cerceris, two should make choice exclusively of Curculios, two of Buprestes ; thus restrict- ing their chance of finding \dctims within such narrow limits : and the total want of outward resemblance between Curculios and Bu- prestes also raises the question why these two groups especially are selected. As, however, we shall see hereafter, this problem has been satisfactorily solved by M. Fabre. After what has been written on the subject by M. Dufour, it is needless to state that the Curculios examined by M. Fabre, tliough deprived absolutely and entirely of aU power of motion, were still not dead. In fact, from their freshness of colour, suppleness of mem- brane, and general internal condition, it was almost impossible to realize their being utterly incapable of the least movement. Througli heat sufficient to have di*ied up any animal which had suffered ordi- nary death, through damp wliich would have caused rapid decomposi- tion, M. Fabre preserved these beetles in paper cornets or in glass tubes : and after a fortnight the viscera were as fresh, the act of dis- section was as easy, as they would have been in the case of a living creature. In the face of facts like these, we cainiot possibly attribute this immoveable state to antiseptic agency alone. Life is there, but numbed, as it were, and paralysed : a miracle beyond the power of chloroform or aether to perform, having its origin in the mysterious laws of the nervous system. In this state of vegetation the animal functions still faintly exert themselves : digestion continues as long as the stomach contains food. By the aid of benzine vapour and of a voltaic battery, M. Fabre succeeded in obtaining some feeble movements of the legs and antennae, even up to the fifteenth day after this extraordinary suspension of muscular power had taken place ; whereas, the same experiments, when made upon beetles dead, in the true sense of the word, only two liours, were productive of no result whatever. These facts, indeed, militate strongly against the supposition that the Curculios are dead, and merely preserved by some means from natural decay. The weapon with which they are overcome is of course the venomous sting of the Cerceris : but how can this pene- trate througli the coat of mail worn by the Curcuho ? in which, more- over, there is no trace of injury or wound to be discovered after the combat is over. The key to this mystery has been obtained by M. Fabre, after an amount of patient investigation which would have wearied out a less persevering and intelligent observer. With great difficulty, and after a long search in fields and hedges, he succeeded in captiu-ing several live specimens of Ciu'culio, which K 2 124 BETIEWS. he placed at the enti'auce of their cuemies' abode, in the ho])e of tempting the Cercerides to attack the prey thus brouglit to tlieir very doors, and to perform under his eyes the act of which he had already in many cases mtnessed the marvellous results. But the victims thus offered were scornfully rejected : the inglorious booty treated with disdain. The experiment of putting a Cerceris and a Cur- culio together in a bottle was attended with no better success. Their positions seemedreversed: the Cerceris, too overcome by fear to attempt resistance, tried vainly to escape, while her antagonist fiercely seized one of her legs between its jaws. Thus baffled, M. Fabre was struck with the ingenious idea of waylaying a Cerceris retumuig with her booty, and contriving to substitute for it a living Curculio. This experiment succeeded to admiration. As soon as the Cerceris per- ceived her prey to have slipped from her grasp, she struck the earth with her feet, and turned impatiently hither and thither : then, sud- denly perceiving the living Curculio placed close to her by M. Fabre, pouuced upon it, and proceeded to carry it off. Instantly, how- es'cr, discovering it to be still uninjured, she placed herself face to face with it, seized its rostrum between her powerful mandibles, and pressed her forelegs heavily upon its back, as if to cause the opening of sonie ventral articulation. Quickly then she slid her abdomen beneath the Curculio, and struck her venomous dart sharply twice or thrice into the joint of the prothorax, between the first and second pair of legs. In one second, without a convulsive movement, without those twitches of the limbs which generally accompany the death agony of any animal, the victim dropped motionless, struck as if by lightning. The Cerceris then, turning the apparently lifeless insect on its back, embraced it as before described, and bore it away in triumph. Three times did M. Fabre repeat this interesting expe- riment, each time with precisely similar results. It must be clearly understood, that on each occcasion he restored to the Cerceris her original captive, and took possession of that which he had himself pro\ided, in order to examine it at his leisure. Greatly did he mar- vel at the dexterity with which the fatal stroke had been dealt. Not the slightest trace of a wound was to be found : not the least drop of vital liquid spilt. The puncture made by the sting of the Cerceris is indeed so microscopic, that chemistry can furnish no poison suffi- ciently powerful to produce with so small a quantity so startling an effect : and it is, in fact, not so much to the venom of the dart as to the physiological importance of the exact point at which it entei's, that we must ascribe the cessation, so complete, so instantaneous, of all active life. In most insects there are three ganglia, which furnish the nerves of the Anngs and legs, and on which the power of movement jjrinci- pally depends. The first, that of the prothorax, is distinct from the others in aU Coleoptera ; but the two last, those of the meso- and meta- thorax, though generally separate, are in some species united together. Now, it is a well-known fact, that, in most cases, the more THE WKITINOS OP M. FAEEE. 125 closely the nervous system is united, centralized as it were, tBe more perfect are the animal functions, and also, of course, the more easily vulnerable. Therefore the Cerceris, whose instinct teaches her at one stroke to annihilate these functions, chooses her victims precisely from the species in Avhich tliis centralization is most complete : the Buprestes, namely, of which the nervous centres of the meso- and met a- thorax are confounded in one large mass ; the Curculicnidre, of whicli the three thoracic ganglia lie near together, the two last quite contiguous to each other. The green larvae found by Ecaumur in the nests of his solitary wasps {Ochjnerus spinipes) w^erefullof life, though apparently plunged by some mysterious means into a state of lethargy: the simple expla- nation of which is, that, in these creatures, the nervous system is more cliftused over the body and consequently loss ail^cted by an attack at any given point. It is, we must remember, of the greatest importance to the Cerceris that her prey should be completely numbed and inca- pable of the least movement : otherwise, what would become of the precious egg laid among struggling Coleojitera ? what of the ten- der little grub, which should emerge in the midst of their great horny claws, writhing convulsively about in a narrow cell ? If she attacked feeble and apathetic larvae, one can imagine that a less complete anni- hilation of muscular action would suffice ; but in the case of beetles twice her own size it woidd be worse than useless ; and she therefore picks out, with imerring precision, from the numerous tribes of Co- leoptera, two of those i)est calculated by the peculiarities of their nervous system to be rendered thoroughly powerless. In order completely to establish his opinion, it remained for M. Fabre to prove that he could by similar means produce a similar result. And this he found himself able to perform with perfect ease, by punctviring the insect with a needle dipped in ammonia at the prothoracic joint, behind the first pair of legs. Any corrosive liquid applied to the thoracic medullary centre Avould have the same effect. His experiments were made in the first instance upon LameUicorns (Scarabceus sacer, S, laticoUls) ; on Buprestes {B. cenea), and on Curculionida?, especially on the particular species so often previously examined by him. He afterwards tried his skill upon Carabidte {Oarabus, Procustes, ChlcBiiius, SpJiodrus, Nehria, &c.) ; upon Longicorns (^SaiJerda, Lamia), and upon Melasomas {Blaps, Scaurus, Asida). In the case of Scarabrei, Buprestes, and Ciu'culionidsp, the effect of his experiments was instantaneous: alb motion ceased suddenly, without a single convulsion, at the instant the fatal drop touched the medullary centre. Not the dart of the Cerceris herself could have a more prompt or lasting effect. Not- withstanding their complete immobility, M. Fabre's victims re- mained alive for three weeks or a month, preserving the flexibility of all theii" joints, and normal freshness of viscera. Digestion proceeded for the first few days, and movements could be provoked by a voltaic current. In the case of IScarabaJus, however, this state cannot always 126 EEVIEWS. be produced. If the wound made by the needle be too deep, or the drop of ammonia too large, the victim really dies, as is speedily pro^'ed by its decomposition. If, on the contrary, the puncture be too slight, the insect recovers, after a shorter or longer period of profound lethargy, and regains, at any rate partially, its pristine vigom'. On those Coleoptera, the thoracic medullary centres of which are distant from each other, the effect produced by ammonia is very different. A wound which would have completely and permanently stumied a vigorous Scaraboeus sacer causes only violent convulsions in a Carabus of moderate size. Gradually the insect becomes calm, and slowly regains its original condition. If the experiment be repeated several times on the same individual the same results ensue, until the wound becomes too severe, and the poor animal expires. Melasomas and Longicorns are more sensitive. The corrosive liquid plimges them instantly into a stupor, which is however only temporary ; and the next day they are lively as ever. Thus, by the process so perfectly successful in the case of Scarabtei, Curculionidae, and Buprestes, it is impossible to produce the same state of paralysis in those Cole- optera of which the three thoracic ganglia are situated at a distance from each other, M. Tab re's second paper is as interesting as the first : it relates to the habits and metamorphoses of the Sphex in general, and of Sphex Jlavipennis in particular. He opens the subject in his own inimitable style, with a beautiful description of insect hfe, an abridgment of which would give no adequate idea of the richuess of colouring, and felicitous arrangement of epithets which invest all the writings of this author with a peculiar charm. Towards the end of July, the Sphex Jlavipennis, tearing open the cocoon which has hitherto enveloped her, takes flight from her subter- ranean abode: and during the month of August she may be observed, enjoying her brief holiday, flying gaily from plant to plant, and basking in the bright rays of the summer sun. But the preservation of her race exacts from her the sacrifice of the few remaining days of her short life, and from the beginning of September she devotes herself to la- bour for the good of her posterity. She is not more fastidious than the Cerceris in the choice of a site for her operations : a loose sandy soil and plenty of sun being the only desiderata. She takes no pre- cautions for sheltering her work during its progress, and it is pitiable to observe the destruction often caused by a shower of rain, by which many a half-finished nest is washed into a heap of imdistinguishable ruins. The Sphex Jlavipennis rarely works alone : from ten to twenty individuals generally combine to excavate a gallery; accompanying their labours with a species of song, sharp and intermittent, modula- ted by the vibration of their wings and body. A keen enjoyment of their task seems to animate these little sappers and miners : they spring here and there with delighted activity, and in the course of a few hours a gallery is completed. AVheu examined it is Ibimd to con- sist of a horizontal corridor, serving as an a\enue to the hidden cells THE WRITINGS OP M. FABKE. 127 destined for the larvae. After proceeding for a distance of two or three inches, this corridor takes an abrupt curve, and tends for a cor- responding depth more or less obliquely downwards, terminating in an oval cell, placed horizontally. Tlie sides of this cell have not been in any way cemented or plastered together : but it is easy to perceive that they have been fashioned with peculiar care, and the sand dili- gently smoothed and planed down, so that the tender grub shall incur no danger from the crumbling of its prison walls. On the completion of one of these little chambers, it has to be provisioned: and then the Sphex, closing it up, proceeds to hollow out another of the same dimensions alongside it. This process she repeats twice or thrice before finally filling up the entrance to her subterraneous nursery, and effacing all outward trace of its existence by smoothing and patting down the outside sand. There are thus three, sometimes four cells connected with each corridor : and as the number of eggs laid by every female Sphex is about thirty, it follows that from seven to ten galleries are required by each. And as the energetic little insect has finished her labours before the end of September, it is evident that only two or three days can be devoted to the excavation of a gallery, to the task of furnishing the separate cells Avith provisions, laying an egg in each, closing the door, and in fact winding up the whole establishment. If we con- sider from how great a distance the Sphex often has to bring the captives of her bow and spear, and also how often rainy days must intervene to prevent her from following the chase, it is easy to see that she must toil hard to make the best of her time, and cannot pretend to give to her nest that solidity and finish which charac- terize the abode of the young Cercerides. For the nest of the Cerceris is the work of years, transmitted from one generation to another, added to and improved by each ; while that of the Sphex resembles a tent, pitched hastily by the belated traveller, and in- tended only to serve as shelter for a single night. A slight varia- tion is observable in the excavations of Sphex alhisecta and the Ammopliila ; they dispense altogether with the horizontal corridor, digging merely a vertical passage, two or three inches in depth, con- nected with a single ceU. Pursuing their labom'S apart from each other, they have obtained the name of " Solitary wasps." Let us now, in company with M. Fabre, watch for the return of a Sphex flavipennis to her nest ; she carries her booty, a grass- hopper many degrees heavier than herself Alighting at some dis- tance from her nest, she proceeds to drag her victim along with her powerful mandibles. After much exertion on her part, he is placed in such a position as to touch the door of his future prison with the ends of his antennae. The Sphex then relinquishes her hold, descends into her nest, and immediately reappearing, seizes her prey, according to M. Fabre, with a little joyful cry, and drags him down into the cell prepared to receive him. Other Hpnenoptera dispense with this preliminary visit to the interior of their strongholds ; the 128 EEVIEWS. Cerceris merely relinquishes her captive for an instant at the en- trance, in order to turn round and crawl backwards — thus more conveniently pulling him after her. "Wliy then should the Sphex ]5ersist in paying this domiciliary visit before introducing her victim ? Pcrhajjs through apprehension lest one of the Tachytes, who make use of the same kind of cells for their offspring, and are accustomed to provision them in like manner, should have taken advantage of the lawful owner's absence, to deposit an egg in the cell ready scooped out. But however this may be, the manoeuvres of the Sphex are in- variably the same. M. Fabre's experiments on this head are very curious. He took advantage of her momentary absence to remove the grasshopper, and place it at a few inches distance. Tlie pro- prietor returned, uttering her usual cry, looked anxiously about, and finally, perceiving her prey, dragged it back to her door, and ■i)laced it again in precisely its former position ; then leaving it, descended as before into her nest. The same process was repeated by M. Fabre thirty or forty times, in the hope that the Sphex, taught by expe- rience, would cease to lose sight for a moment of her captive and convey it at once into the earth. But the perseverance of the insect triumphed over that of the philosopher; or rather, her acts not being dictated by reason, she knew not how to leave the path marked out for her by instinct. In the case also of a Sphex alhisecta, an inflexible adherence to settled laws in this respect was strikingly manifest, presenting a still more curious instance of the rigidity of instinct and its inapplicability to imusual conditions. Having, in the course of one^ of his experiments, removed her victim from the sight of a Sphex albisecta, M. Fabre observed the insect, after seeking vainly in all directions, descend for a few instants into her cell, and then emerging, proceed to cover up the entrance, as if her task were now satisfactorily accomplished ; a striking exemplification of the manner in which acts of instinct depend one upon another, and admit of no variation, notwithstanding that their object may be entirely defeated by the alteration of siu'rounding circumstances. In the normal state of things, observes M. Fabre, the Sphex pur- sues her prey, lays an egg and closes her nest ; an accident deprives her of her booty ; no matter — that part of her duty is over, she there- fore performs the remainder, and shuts up the unlucky egg quite unprovided for. Tliink of the melancholy fate entailed by maternal stii])idity upon the helpless little new-born lai'va— fancy it emerging from the shell, in the full expectation of a satisfactory meal, and tlie miserable disappointment awaiting it, ending in despaii' and a lin- gei'ing death. Many larvc'e must so perish; for the case above- mentioned is by no means exceptional. M. Fabre repeated the experiment several times, meeting almost invariably with the same results; aiul on o])ening the nests he frequently found cells either su])])]icd inadetpiately with provisions, or containing none at all. The rest of this paper is chiefly anatomical, and devoted to an THE WKITINOS OF M. PABRE. 129 nccouut of the metamorphoses undergone by those larvae which are fortunate enough on leaving the shell to find their larders weU supplied ; but we must pass on to give a short summary of M. Fabre's paper on the habits and metamorphoses of Sitaris humeralis. This interesting beetle is parasitic on Anthopliora, in the galleries of which it lays its eggs. These are hatched at the end of September or beginning of October ; and M. Fabre not umiaturally expected that the young larvae, which are active little creatures with six serviceable legs, would at once eat their way into the cells of the Anthopliora. No such thing: till the month of April following they remain without leaving their birthplace, and consequently without food ; nor do they in this long time change either in form or size. M. Fabi'e ascertained this, not only by examining the burrows of the Anthophoras, but also by direct observation of some young larvfe kept in captivity. In April, however, his specimens at last threw oft' their long lethargy, and hurried anxiously about then prisons. Naturally inferring that they were in search of food, M. Fabre sup- posed that this Avould consist either of the larvae or pupae of the Anthophora, or of the honey with which it stores its cell. All three were tried without success. The two first were neglected, and when placed on the latter they hurried away, or perished in the attempt, being evidently unable to deal with this sticky substance. M. Fabre was in despair : " Jamais experience," he says, " n'a eprouve pareille deconfiture. Larves, nymphes, cellules, miel, je vous ai tout ofiert ; que voulez-vous done, bestioles maudites ?" The first ray of light came to him from our countryman, New- port, who ascertained that a small parasite found by Leon Dufour on one of the wild bees, and named by him Triungulinus, was, in fact, the larva of the Meloe. The larvae of Sitaris much resem- bled Dufour's Triungulinus, and acting on this hint, M. Fabre exa- mined many specimens of Anthophora, and found on them the larvae of his Sitaris. The males of Anthophora emerge from the pupae before the females, and as they come out of their galleries, the little larvae fasten upon them. Not, however, for long : their instinct teaches them that they are not yet in the straight path of develop- ment ; and watching their opportunity they pass from the male to the female Bee. Guided by these indications, M. Fabre examined several cells of Anthophora : in some, the egg floated by itself on the surface of the honey ; in others, on the egg of the Anthophora, as on a raft, sat the still more minute larva of the Sitaris. The mystery was solved. By a process of reasoning too long for us to insert, M. Fabre convinced himself that at the moment when the egg is laid, the Sitaris larva springs upon it. Even while the poor mother is carefully fastening up her cell, her mortal enemy is beginning to devour her oft'spring. For the egg of the Anthophora serves not only as a raft, but as a repast. The honey, which is enough for either, would be too little for both ; and tlie Sitaris, therefore, in its first meal, relieves itself from its only rival. After eight days the egg is 130 liETIEWS. consumed, and on the empty shell the Sitaris undergoes its first trans- formation. The life of almost all insects is divided iuto four stages ; the Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Imago: the larva, indeed, may moult several times, but the conditions of life being unaltered, the form is generally the same, and the change is only in size. Very different is the case with our Sitaris : the honey v^'hich was before fatal is now necessary; the activity which before was necessary, is now useless; consequently, with the change of skin the active, sHm larva changes into a white, fleshy grub, so organised as to float on the surface of the honey, Avith the mouth below, and the spiracles above the surface ; " grace a I'em- bonpoint du ventre, la larve est a I'abri de I'asphyxie." In this state it remains till the honey is consumed ; then the animal contracts, and detaches itself from its skin, within which the other transforma- tions take place. In the next stage, which M. Fabre calls the Pseudo- chrysalis, the larva has a solid corneous envelope, and an oval shape, and in its colour, consistence, and immobility reminds one of a Dip- terous Pupa. The time passed in that condition varies much. When it has elapsed, the animal moults again, and once more resembles the second stage (?). After this it becomes a pupa without any remark- able peculiarities ; and finally, after these wonderful changes and adventures, in the month of August the perfect Sitaris makes its appearance. We wish that we could have done M. Tabre's paper more justice; that we could have given some specimens of his peculiar raciness of style, his wonderful power of description. But already we have been tempted beyond our limits. "We can do no more than mention his observations on Meloe, and his excellent paper on the Myi^iapodes. All lovers of nature, however, should read what he has written, and we think we can promise them that they will not be disappointed. Por oursehes, we offer our cordial thanks to M. Fabre for the pleasure which his writings have given us. XIV. — A History of British Sessile-etek Crustacea. By C. Spence Bate, Esq., F.E.S., E.L.S., and J. O. Westwood, Esq., M.A., E.L.S., Hope Professor of Zoology at Oxford. (J. Van Voorst.) EECHERCnES SUR LA EaUNE LiTTORALE DE BeLGIQUE ; CRUSTAcfes. Par p. J. Van Beneden, Professor a rUniversite Catholique de Louvain. The work which we have placed at the head of the present article, and of which three nmnbers only have as yet appeared, will be a very valuable addition to our knowledge of the British Crustacea. The classification proposed by Messrs. Spence Bate and Westwood is as follows : — CnUSTACEA. 131 AMPniPODA. Group. Division. Subdivision. Tribe. Family. Subfamily. Saltatoria=Orchestii(lse Nor- malia. "a rina. r Natatoria= Gammaridte Vacantia. "^ Stegocephalklcs Lysianassidcs Ampeliscides Phoxides Gamma- ^ < L Gammaridcs Domicola •{ I I Corophiidae t Podocerides Coropliiides Abcr- S \^ Chcluridte TT • S Hyperiidfe HyiiermaJ Phronimidaj . . . Dulichiidse Caprellidse r-^"'!'*- 1 Cyamid£e Talitras, Orchcstia, Al- lorcliestcs, Nicrea. Montagua, Danaia, Lysianassa, Callisoma, Auonyx. Ampelisca. Plioxus, Sulcator, Ki-oi- yira,Wcstwoodia,Gray- ia, iVIonoculodes, Am- philocliiis, Darwiuia, Urotlioe, Lilgeborgia, Phajdra, Istea, Iphime- dia, Otus, Acanthono- tus. Gammaras, Dexamine, Atj-lus, Phenisa, Cal- liope, Eusii-us, Leuco- tlioe, Aora, Stimpsonia, Protomedia, Bathypo- reia, Niphargus, Cran- gonyx, Gammarella, Melita, MiBra, Mega- lutera, Eurysthcus, A- matilia, &c. Podocenis, C)Ttopliium, Amphitoe, Sunamphi- toe, Cerapus, Sipliouo- ccetus, &c. Corophium,Drj'opc,Cra- tippus. Chelura. Hyperia, Lestrigonus. Phi'onima. Dulichia. Proto? ProtelIa,CaprelIa. Cyamus. Tlie tliree principal divisions of tlie body they call Cephalon, Pereion, and Pleon ; for tlie parts of the mouth they propose the new name " Siagonopods," a term, however, which seems to us unnecessary ; the appendages of the Pereion are with them pereiojiods, and those of the Pleon, pleopods, in addition to which they give to the three posterior pairs the designation of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd uropods. The internal anatomy of the Amphipoda does not come within the scope of their work, but in addition to an excellent outline slvetch of each species, they give magnified representations of the more charac- teristic organs. On the whole the work will be a most valuable contribution to our knowledge of the British Pauna ; but we must defer any farther consideration of it till it is completed. Tlie volume for which we are indebted to the learned Professor of Louvain is rather a series of monographs than a complete work on the Ci'ustacea of Belgium. The first chapters are devoted to the 132 REVIEWS. MysidfiD. Tlie development of the embryo in this abnormal family had already been shortly described, but Professor Van Beneden has here worked it out in detail, and has pointed out several interesting facts in addition to those already knowTi. The MysidiB have no true branchiae ; but in connection with the heart there are, on each side, five small lateral blood-vessels, and according to Professor Van Beneden, " Ces canaux correspondent " exactement aux vaisseaux brauchiaux des crustaces plus eleves, et " e'est sur leur trajet que se developpent les lamelles branchiales des " decapodes en general. II existe ainsi une petite circulation ; le " sang sort du coeur et, apres avoir, parcouru la place qu'occupent " les brancliies dans les autres decapodes et surtout apres avoir regu " un confluent veineux des appendices cephaliques, retoiu-ne rapide- " ment au meme coeur pour en etre chasse de nouveau." Professor Van Beneden considers that Mysis difters from the other Crustacea in the curvature of the body of the embryo. " II est inutile," he says, " de faire remarquer que les Mysis s'eloignent des crustaces, tant par " les premiers rudiments de Tapparition blastodermique que par la " maniere dont le corps se replie sur lui meme. En general I'abdomen " et la queue se plieut sous le thorax et se croisent avec les appendices " cephalothoraciques. Dans les Mysis, le corps se replie en sens " inverse vers le dos, et tous les aj^pendices, depuis ceux de la tete " jusqu'a ceux dela queue, au lieu de secroiser, sont couches dans le " meme sens." Not only, however, is this the case, as he admits in the allied genera Idothea and Ligia, but we find the same thing also in Oniscus and Asellus (Rathke Abhandlungen zur bildungs- und entwickelungs — Geschichte des menschen und der Tliiere. Leipsig, 1832-1833). And it is also well shown in Zaddach's beautiful memoir on the embryology of Phryganea (Untersuchungen liber die Entwickelung und den Ban der Grliederthiere. Berlin, 1854). In the Diptera and Coleoptera, namely in Donacia crassipes among beetles, in Chironomus,* Simvilia (see Kolliker's " Observationes de prima inscctorum genesi"), and Melophagus (Die Portpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen, Leuckart), among flies, the same phenomenon holds good; so that far from regarding it as exceptional and peculiar to Mysis, we are rather disposed to look upon it as the normal disposition of the embryo among the Articulata. The condition and embryonic development of the organs of sensa- tion in Mysis are especially interesting. With reference to the ocular peduncles, indeed. Professor Van Beneden says, p. 62, " Ce pedicule " (le pedicule oculaire) n' apparait aucunement comme les autres appen- " dices,et semble avoir une autre valeur morphologique ; " an assertion, however, which appears scarcely reconcileable with his, almost imme- * With reference to Chironomus, Kollikcr expressly says : — " Qiiando primum " corporis articuhvtio expressa cerni jiotost, primus ad octavum us(pic articuhim in " parte abdoniinah, nonus ad tertium dccimum in ori dorso siti huut" — a position which is well shown in the plate. CRUSTACEA. 133 diately following, statement, that " dans le honiard ies " pedicnlcs oculaires se developpent plus tot et indiquent plus claire- " ment que cliez les Mysis leur communaute d'origine avec les " organes appendiculaires." It appears, therefore, as is indeed directly stated in p. 29, that in spite of some confusion of expression in p. 62, Professor Van Beneden does, in fact, consider the ocular pedicule as the appendage of the anterior segment. He also regards the " telson" as representing a posterior segment, and adopts, there- fore, Milne Edwards' view, that the body of a Crustacean consists of twenty-one segments, in opposition to those naturalists who see only twenty. So accustomed are we to see the organs of sensation located in the head that we cannot but feel astonished to find that the ear of Mysis is not in its head, but in its tail. This curious fact, which was discovered by Leuckart, has been confirmed by several distin- guished naturalists, and last, not least, by M. Van Beneden, who moreover, like Kroyer, has traced a nerve from the last ganglion to the otolithe. We may find a parallel case in the little worm described by Quatrefages, under the name of Polyojihthalmus, which has eyes on every segment of the body. Amphicora Sahella also, another ■worm, has, according to O. Schmidt, eyes in its tail. Moreover, among insects, the Crickets and Grrasshoppers have an organ in the anterior pair of legs, which is considered by some good observers to be an ear, but which certainly is, like the remarkable organ at the base of the halteres of Flies, an organ of some special sense, though what that sense may be it is not so easy to decide. The Professor does not always do justice to his predecessors. Thus under the Cetoehilidae he refers only to Roussel de A^auzeme and Groodsir, entirely ignoring all that has since been written on this family. He mentions only one species belonging to the group, and this one he attempts to identify with the Cetochilus septentrionalis. His description of it, however, clearly shows that it does not belong to this family of Entomostraca at all, but is one of the Calanidse, and belongs probably to the genus Calaniis, which may at once be distinguished from Cetochilus by the position of the eyes. Many of the Calanoidea have at the anterior extremity of the cephalothorax two curious horns, which were mistaken by Groodsir for anteimse. Professor Van Beneden corrects this error, which, however, was pointed out long ago by Baird, and has been adopted by no subse- quent writer. The description which he gives of the difierent parts is almost useless for identification, as the characters mentioned are those which are common to many species: take away the extremities of the antennae (antennules of V. Beneden), those of the abdomen, and the posterior pair of legs ; half the species of Calanus would be undistinguishable from one another. Of this our author was e\'i- dently not aware, and his attention has not been particularly draT\Ti to the characteristic organs. Moreover, we cannot supply the de- ficiencies from the plate. He gives thi'ee very dissimilar represen- tations of the antennae ; two of them, however, are small, and perhaps, 134! EEVIEWS. therefore, not intended to be strictly accurate. Unfortunately, however, this is not the only error. In his two figures of the animal the proportions of the segments are different, the anterior cephalo- thoracic segment being absolutely longer in the smaller figure. It is, indeed, djfiicult to believe that the two drawings have been taken from the same species, as the abdominal segments differ not only in proportion but in number, and the length of the antennae is by no means the same. Again, the abdomen, as represented in figure 5, differs from that either in figures 1 or 7, agreeing, indeed, with figure 7 in the number of segments, but differing in their proportion as well as in the form of the caudal lamellae and the number of the caudal setae. Still, the drawings are good, and apparently truthful. Some of the differences above alluded to (and which are by no means all that might have been pointed out) may be sexual cha- racters; some may be the result of mutilation; but there are others which cannot be accounted for in this manner ; and as there are many species of this group which are at first sight very similar to one another, we suspect that in Professor Van Beneden's Plate sviii., and in his description, two or more species have been eon- founded together. The pretty little Isopod, originally described by Slabber under the name of Agaat-Pissebet, has been rediscovered by Van Beneden, and named by him Slabberina, after its first observer. The sperma- tozoa of this species (Plate XV. figure 10) are, according to the figure given, in the form of a long seta with a bundle of shorter hairs at one end. If, however, we may judge from the parallel case of Asellus, these bodies are not simple spermatozoa, but we have here another case of bimorphism in the seminal elements. In our com- mon fresh- water Asellus aquaticm, the spermatozoa are of two sorts. The first are oval, or more or less elongated bodies diverging in the form of a brush from a common point of attachment. Pi'om the same point arise several long and slender setae, which, however, are often attached together along their whole length so as to look like a single filament. We presume that the same is the case with Slab- berina, and that we may add this genus, therefore, to the small but gradually increasing number of species in which the spermatozoa are of two sorts, and which are, perhaps, destined, ere long, to throw a new light on the whole subject of generation. An interesting chapter is devoted to the Sacculinidae. Tliey are parasitic on higher Crustacea, and are the most degraded of their class. The sandy shores of Ostend are inhabited by great numbers of common Crabs. Three-quarters of these carry on the underside of the abdomen a little yellow ball, which is sometimes as large as a nut, and which, of course, prevents the abdomen from fitting into its furrow. This yellow globule, at first sight like nothing less than the active lively Crab, belongs nevertheless to the same great group of animals, and forms the genus Sacculina of Tliompson. A secoiTd member of the same family, the Peltoyaster Pacjuri, attaches itself, as its name denotes, to the Hermit Crab, whose name is, indeed. CBUSTACEA. 135 a very misnomer. The so-called happy families, which we sometimes see in our streets, offer no such odd assemblages as we may often find in and on the shell of a dead whelk. First we have the Hermit Crab himself ; the margin of the shell is often tenanted by a species of Anemone {Adamsiapalliata), while the rest of its surface is covered by a growth of the curious and pretty little polyp, known as Hydrac- tinia ecliinata. Nor is the Pagurus the only occupant of the shell. ]Mi\ Grosse tells us of a co-tenant in the form of a beautiful Nereid worm, which, like the preceding species, feeds on the crumbs which fall from the rich man's table. " The soft and serpent-like Annelide," Ave quote from Mr. Spence Bate (Zoologist, 1859, p. 6687), " smells " the repast that the master of the house is enjoying, and, like a wily " guest, takes care to be present at the meal, even though unbidden. " See ! beneath the Crab the beautiful head glides out. While the " self-confident owner is devouring one piece, and in his full enjoy- " ment looking round and, perhaps, admiring the submarine scenery, " the worm attaclis that which is in the other hand, and by little and " little the Crab feels it going, and makes an eflbrt to stop it on the " way ; but it evidently can be seen, by his manner, that he caiuiot " believe that any one woidd be so rude as to steal his dinner out of " his very mouth, and does not think much about the undevoiu'ed " food, but which, nevertheless, is slowly, gradually, and surely taken " away." To this interesting group must be added the Feltogaster Fagiiri, wliich, when mature, has a regular oval form, and a reddish colour, due to the numerous eggs it contains. So little does it, indeed, resemble a Crustacean that we cannot wonder at the mistakes which have been made concerning its true nature. Cavolini regarded it aa a sort of animal-gall, not recognizing it as an entire animal, but supposing that some other Crustacean deposited its eggs in the Pagurus. Thompson first described it correctly, and recognized its afiinities with the Lerneidae. Eathke at first placed it among the Ti'ematodes, in which he was followed by Diesing and Dujardin, though the latter, indeed, says that it " parait etre toute auti'e chose " qu'un trematode." KJroyer expresses no opinion as to its afiinities. Steenstrup classes it with Bopyrus, among the Isopods. Lilgeborg looks upon it as a Cirrhiped. Professor Van Beneden places the Sacculinidpe in his list of Crustacea, observed on the shores of Belgium, immediately alter Lerneonema, and explains their homologies as follows : — " Que Ton se figure, en cffet, des Nicothoe, dont les deux poches s'etendraient tout autour du segment qui leur donne naissance, en d'autres termes, dont le segment tout entier se prolongerait en arriere de manitere a enveloppcr I'abdomen et la queue ; il y aura un orifice posterieur d'evacuation, un veritable cloaque d'oiseau ; en supposant ensuite que la tete s' allonge comme dans les Lcrnea bran- chialis et plonge de la menie maniere dans les chair, que les segments en arriere et en avant s'eflacent pour ne plus laisser place qu'cn segment scxuci, nous aurons ime idee de cctte transformation siugulierc d'un animal regulier ct symetriquc en sac informe et gaine a ceufs." 13G >riKl«:tl ^riidtn. XV. — On the Desirability of an English Translation op Aristotle's History op Animals : by Eev. W. Houghton, MA., r.L.s. •! Op all the great intellectual luminaries that have enlightened the different departments of human learning, it would be difficult if not impossible to name one that can justly claim to rival Aristotle in the extent and depth and philosopMc value of his writings. The Zoo- logist may well feel a degree of pride when he remembers that this great man was the founder of his science ; for it is to Aristotle that he is indebted for the birth of Zoology ; it is he who fii-st attempted to reduce to a system the various and diversified forms of animal life which even the limited geogra]ihical knowledge of the ancients served to make them acquainted mth. Truly one stands aghast when one contemplates over hov/ wide a field of human thought the vast mind of Aristotle wandered, and how ably and comprehensively each subject is treated. The modern zoologist, knowing well how exten- sive an area his own particular science occupies, devotes his time and study to acquire, as perfectly as he is able, a general knowledge of the laws of the animal kingdom, and afterwards is fain content for the most part to confine himself mthin some circum- scribed bomidary, and to give his attention towards the full and exact elucidation of some particular group; but when we think of Aristotle's labours, whether in the field of Natural Science or in that of Dialec- tics and Logic, we can only wonder and admire, but cannot attemjit to imitate. " Had this extraordinary man," Swainson* well observes, " left us no other memorial of his talents than his researches in Zoo- " logy, he would still be looked upon as one of the greatest philoso- " pliers of ancient Greece, even in its highest and brightest age. But ^' when it is considered that his eloquence and his depth of thought " gave laws to orators and poets, that he was almost equally great " in moral as in physical science, we might almost be tempted to " think that the powers of the human mind had retrograded, and that *' originality of thought and philosophic combination existed in a far *' higher degree among the heathen philosophers than in those Avho " followed them." But though all the encomiums that have been passed upon Aris- totle, from the time of Cicero to our own day, are justly due, when we reflect on the time in which the philosopher lived, when Science was unaided by the modern mechanical appliances which the ingenuity and skill of man has planned and executed, we must not be led into • Dhcourse on the Study of Natural History, p. 6. HOUGHTON ON ARTSTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 137 the error of su2)posiug that Zoologicul science has made but little progress since the days of the Stagyrite, nor must we be unprepared to meet, in the Physical writings of our author, with many errors and fables, — much chalf mingled with the grain. The following remark of Buffon can not certainly be regarded as unimpeachable now, though it serves to show how rapid a stride Zoology has made since the days of the IVench naturalist : — " Aristotle's History of Animals is perhaps even now the best work of its kind i he probably knew animals better and under more general views than mc do now- Although moderns have added their discoveries to those of the ancients, I do not believe that we have many works on Natural History that we can place above ihosc of Aristotle and PUny."— (J^m-^. Nat. i. p. 62.) Still though it would now properly be regarded as a mark of ig- norance to compare the state of Zoological science as first promul- gated by Aristotle, with its more developed though still imperfect form as it has been handed do^vn to us by Cuvier, Milne-Edwards, Owen, and a hundred other patient workers in the same inexhaustible mine, it is nevertheless true that it was Aristotle who first taught us to look to the internal structure as the only safe guide to a natural system of classification, and who by his own anatomical investigations, to which he frequently refers, led the way in which Cuvier afterwards so successfully followed. But there is no need for me to enlarge at all on a topic with which every zoologist is familiar ; the object of this paper is to call the at- tention of English naturalists to the desirability of having such a faithful translation of the Trepl Zwwv 'laroplag as shall present in an accurate form the contents of that great book. The utility of such a translation must I think be evident to every student ; he wiU find in the Treatises on Animals that some of the same problems which have engaged the attention of modern naturalists presented themselves ages before in a somewhat similar form to the enquiries of Empedocles and other ancient philosophers. Who, for instance, can fail to discern in the following passage from the De Partihus Animalium the question on the theory of development, as advocated by Lamarck and the author of the "Vestiges of Creation:" — "Similarly some philosophers assert, with respect to the generation of animals and plants, that from water flowing in the body the stomach was produced, and every organ re- cipient of food or excrement, and that by the passage of the breath the nostrils were burst open." (Yol. i. p. 640, ed. Bekker.) The reader will find, again, in Aristotle, matter relating to " Spontaneous Gene- ration," a theory which has recently been advocated by M. Pouchet* with considerable ability, and supported by many curious, though at present inconclusive results. It is desirable to have an English translation of the " History of * Hcterogcnie, oil I'raile de la generation spontanee, Paris, 18.59, and Genese ties pro1 o-organismcs dans I'air calcine et a I'aide de corps puirescible pvrtes a la temperature de 1.50 degres. in Compt. Rend. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1860. N. H. R.— 1862. L 138 ORIGINxVL ARTICLES. Animals," because no available good one at present exists. Tlie whole works of Aristotle were translated into English by Mr. Thomas Taylor in 1812 ; but this work, which was executed for a gentleman in London of the name of Mereditli, at whose expense it was printed, is so rare that few persons have ever seen it even in public libraries.* But the translation of the Natural History portion in a scientific point of view is almost worthless ; a few instances taken merely from the first chapter of the History of Animals will suffice as a sample, — ralra Se. tU fxkv ulu ToJv fiopicjv lariv is ren- dered, " but some of the parts are the same in species.''^ Again, \f yw ?£ yivoQ o'lov opvida /cat lxdvy,is, rendered by this translator to express the exact opposite to what Aristotle means : thus — " I speak of those whose genus is the same as birds and fisliei' ! Although it is perfectly true that Aristotle uses the term yivoQ in a very in- definite sense, sometimes to denote a " class," sometimes a " genus," and any division between the two, yet he would never have asserted that a fish and a bird were to be comprehended in the same yivoQ. In the passage in question, he intended to express the ytVog of bii-ds as one division, and the yivog of fish as another. (§ 2.) Again, avuirvtiv Kui tfCTTj'iO', " inspiration and expiration," is rendered " respi- ration and expu'ation." The note to explain the word oXodovpia conveys the following explicit piece of information, " a kind of spongy and marine excrescence ;" the KapafooL are translated " locusts," without a word of warning not to confuse the locusta {Palinurus locusta ?) the Crustacean, with the Orthopterous insect of that name. And to sum up may be added the following passage in ch. 5, § 4 — Tibv Zi. Trrrjvwy ra jxtv nrepwrd kaTW, oloi' aeroc kcil lepa^' to. Se TrrtXwrct, oiov HiXiTTU Kid iiriXoXovdrj' ra ^f ZtpfjiOTrrepa, o'lOV a.Xw7rr]L, Kal vvKrepic- " But of birds some are winged, as the eagle and the hawk ; others have a dry membrane for feathers, as bees and beetles ; and others have leathern wings as the bird called alopex [or the flying fox] and tlie bat." These specimens are sufficient to show that Taylor's trans- lation cannot be regarded zoologically in any sense as expressing the meaning of his author ; at the same time we have no intention to pass any judgment at all on the whole work, but these instances are cited in order to prove that a translator of a work on Natural History should have some zoological knowledge. "With respect to other translations I am only able to speak of the French one by M. Camus.f This seems to be a most creditable pro- duction ; and the translator, who has taken infinite pains to get at the meaning of his author, appears, as far as my slight knowledge of his work goes, to have been successful. Perhajjs to the matter-of-fact English mind, M. Camus occasionally leads one to fear he is giving us * I believe only 50 copies were printed ; a set was sold in London a few weeks ago by Mr. Hodgson for £14. 14«. f Histoire des Animaux (TAridote, avec la Traduction Fraiigoine, par M. Camus, A Paris, 1783. • HOUGHTON ON AEISTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 139 a little more than Aristotle intends, but this is all. Tlie first volume contains the G-reek and the Prench on opposite pages ; the second Aolume contains a Dictionary of Notes. No doubt the translator would frequently find himself utterly at a loss to identify the names of many of the animals mentioned by Aristotle ; this arises partly fi-om paucity of description, — several animals weU known to the ancients, from the very fact of their being weU-knowTi, are with much dilficulty identifiable, — partly from our ignorance of the extent of the countries from which Aristotle may have received specimens ; for our author, singularly enough, does not give us much information on this point. His great desire apparently was, to form a system of classification ; this was just the task suited to his generalising mind, he cared more for comparative anatomy than for a laiowledge of the geographical distribution of, or tlie par- ticular localities inhabited by, the animals of which he speaks. Stahr, in his admirable article on Aristotle (in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Gr. and 'Bom. Biog.), has drawn attention to some passages in the writings of the KStagyrite, in which it appears that " he is fond of noticing physicians and their operations, in his explanatory comparisons." Aristotle's father was a physician to one of the kings of Macedon, and author of several works on natural science, whence can readily be traced Aristotle's fondness for subjects of this nature. Pliny appears to be the great authority for the story that Aris- totle received much help from Alexander the Great, who, says the lioman naturalist, " having a strong desire to learn the nature of " animals, entrusted the prosecution of the design to Aristotle, a man " who held the highest place in every department of learning ; he " placed then under his control several thousand men in every region " of Grreece and Asia, Inmters, fowlers, fishers, or men who had the " superintendence of parks, of cattle, of the rearing of bees, of fish- " ponds and a\^aries, so that no existing animal might escape his " notice. He obtained such information from these persons, that he " was enabled to write some fifty volumes on the subject of animals, " which deservedly hold a high repute." {H. N. viii. 16.) Athenseus (ix. p. 398,) asserts that according to report, Aristotle received 800 talents from Alexander to enable him to produce his work.* Now it certainly does strike one as a strange thing that there is no mention of, nor any allusion whatever to such assistance from Alexander, and there is nothing in his own writings to lead one to suppose that Aristotle had ever received any assistance at all from the King for the prosecution of this work. I camiot, therefore, help thinking that the whole story is an exaggeration, and that the greater * The Attic talent being equivalent to £243. 15s, the required sum would amount to £195,000 ! Well may Schu'z remark "that it would be easy to show that an assessment of the whole kingdom of Macedon, even su])i.'0,sing that Alexander had presented Aristotle with the returns of many years, coulil not have supplied the sum." L 2 140 ORIGINAL AETICLES. part of the animals Aristotle describes, which have come under his own observation, were inhabitants of no veiy distant lands. Schneider {Epimetr. i.) says on this subject, " I do not remember " to ha^'e discovered any trace in the History of Animals which could " induce me to believe that Aristotle was acquainted with any of the " animals from the interior of Asia and of India, which are supposed " to have been made known to him by those who accompanied Alex- " ander in his expedition." (See also the arguments of Schulz quoted by Schneider. Epemetr. i. p. xlv.) Of course a question of this kind is of great importance, because its satisfactory solution wovdd seem to determine to some extent the countries, portions of whose Fauna Aristotle describes. Hence, as was observed, the translator will often be much per- plexed in his attempts to identify very many names ; and it appears to me that where he is not certain of his identification, it is desirable to put the Greek word in Roman letters, and to leave the note to supply other information. Another caution to be observed should be mentioned. The translator should be extremely careful not to over interpret his author ; not to use sentences or terms which mo- dern science has stamped with some definite technical meaning, as the equivalents of the Greek, imless it can fairly be demonstrated that the expressions or terms are strictly identical in signification. The use of a modern scientific term wiU often be found to convey a wrong impression, if applied for the purpose of translation. But in order to render the proposed work of real utility to the Natviralist, the translator must be able to ensure the cordial co-ojie- ration of Zoologists — the various branches of Zoology which require elucidation in the notes can hardly be ever expected to receive this adequately from one man, unless he can depend on assistance from those who have paid particular attention to the diflerent departments. Again, the work must be done by degrees ; the translation should fi.rst be made, then carefully corrected after a patient study of all that Aristotle has written on the subject of animals ; for it is quite unreasonable to suppose that even a small portion of the ' History of Animals ' can be fully understood and accurately interpreted until all that Aristotle has written which bears on the subject has been thoughtfully digested ; the notes should be the last thing to be done. The following translation of the first chapter of the History of Animals must therefore be regarded as provisional, and this is especially the case with respect to the notes, because there can be little doubt that a competent knowledge of the other treatises which bear on Zoology would serve to make clearer many of the names which are therein considered. The text of Schneider has been fol- lowed.* * Aristotelis de Anivudihus Ilistorice, Libri x. Ed. Jo. G. Schneider. 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1811, This is far the best edition of this work. Schneider studied Zoology, and has pidilished some papers on the Reptilia. HOUGHTON ON ARISTOTLE's HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 141 It appears to me that it is desirable in the attempts at identifica- tion of the various names of animals to interpret Aristotle by Aris- totle as far as possible ; for when we wander off into the Zoological mazes of Pliny or Aelian, we enter a field full of fable, and one therefore from operations in which little solid aid is to be antici- pated. I should be glad to learn that this short paper is deemed of suffi- cient importance to stir up in the minds of Naturalists a desire to possess an English Translation of the History of Animals. Aristotle's History of Animals. Chapter I. Of the parts of animals some are simple, as many, namely, as are divided into similar parts, as flesh into flesh ; others are compoimd, as many, namely, as are divided into dissimilar parts, for the hand is not divided into hands, nor the face into faces ; of these latter, some are called not merely parts but members, as is the case with all those which being of themselves entire have within them other parts, as the head and the leg, the whole of the arm and the trunk,* for these of themselves constitute entire members and contain different parts ; all the dissimilar parts, moreover, are composed of similar ones, as the hand of flesh, nerves, and bones. Now some animals have all the parts the same one with another, others different. Some parts are the same in form ; as, for instance, the nose and the eye of one man are identical with the nose and the eye of another, and flesh is identical with flesh, and bone A\'ith bone. Similarly in the ease of horses, and as many other animals as in form we say are the same one wdth another, for the parts stand in the same relation each to each as the whole to the whole. Again, some parts are the same, but difler in excess and defect, as in the case of those animals whose kind is the same ; by kind I mean such a differ- ence as there is betM^een a bird and a fish,t for of these animals each differs in its kind and in relation to its kiud,:f: and there are * Gwpo?, Aristotle in this place and in ch. 7, uses this term to denote the " ti-unk" of the body; in ch. 10, he applies it in a more limited sense, to signity the breast or thorax. f ykvoQ, in this passage, will thus be identical with the ' class' of modern zoolo- gists, but the term is employed by Aristotle in no definite sense; y'tvoQ may denote either a r/emis, an order, or a class. In ch. 6, § 1. the Cephalopodous molluscs are regarded as one of the yh/t] jxiyioTa, comprising the Classes of Bkds, Pish, &c. ; the Cetacea are similarly classified. \ Kara to ytf og Kai vpog to ykvoQ. Aristotle asserts that the differences which exist between animals, as for instance between a bird and a fish, may be viewed under two aspects ; there are differences between the various families, genera, or species which comprise the class, and there are differences between the classes them- selves, when viewed relatively to each other. Some MSS. omit Kai 7rj)6t,' r. y.; see Camus, Animanx (VAri^tote, i. p. 487. 142 OEIOINAL ARTICLES. many fonns* of fishes and of birds. Almost all tlie parts of animals differ one from another, according to their various capabilities of dis- tinction, as, for instance, in colour or in shape, — in which respect some are more aftected than others, some less, — or with reference to the question of many or few, large or small size, in shorty in point of excess and defect ; for some animals are crustaceous, others are testaceous ;t some ha\'e a long beak, as Cranes, others a short one ; some have many feathers, others only few ; moreover, even in these last-named animals some ]>arts are different from others, for some are furnished with spurs while others are not so provided; and some possess a crest, others do not ; but to sum up, most of the parts of which the whole body is composed are either the same or they differ in their conti'arie- ties, according to excess and defect, for one may refer the terms 'more' or 'less,' to what we understand by 'excess' or 'defect.' Again, some parts of animals are the same neither in form, nor in respect of excess and defect, but by analogy; as a bone when compared with a (fish's) spine, a nail with a hoof, a hand with a claw, and a scale Avith a feather, for what a feather is to the bird, that a scale is to a fish. AVith respect then to the parts which each living thing possesses, tliey may be in this way both different and the same. Similarly also with regard to the position of the parts ; for many animals possess the same parts, but they are differently situated ; some, lor instance, have the mamma3 on the breast, others near the thighs. Again, of similar parts, some are soft and moist, others diy and hard ; by moist I mean that which is either altogether so, or such as continues moist so long only as its nature admits, as blood, serum, fat, suet, marrow, the generative fluid, gall, milk in those ani- mals which possess it, flesh, and whatever is analogous to these things ; one may also mention excrementitious matters, as phlegm, and the sediments from the belly and the bladder. Dry and hard parts are such as nerves, skin, veins, hair, bone, cartilage, nail, horn, (for the part which has the same form has the same name, and in a Avord, is called " horn "), and as many substances as are analogous to these things. Now, the differences which exist between living things are in 7'eference to their modes of life, their actions, their dispositions, and their parts. We will, first of all, speak of these things in a general way, and subsequently attentively consider each particular kind. The differences in reference to their modes of life, their actions, and their dispositions are such as these,— some are aquatic animals, others are terrestrial in their habits. The aquatic animals are so in a twofold manner, some inasmuch as they spend their life and gain * tUoi; means literally " tliat which is seen," the " form or shape," like the Latin Species; it must not be restricted to denote what zoologists understand by the term xpccies ; Aristotle uses it in a more extensive sense. t (xaXaKosTQaKa is clearly the representative of the Crustacea ; offrpaKoSefi/ia of the tcdoceous viollusc.i, which arc occasionally mentioned under the simple term oarpioy. Scc ch. C § 1 ; und Ilk. V. 13. § 9. HOTJGHTON ON AETSTOTLe's niSTOUT OF ANIMALS. 1-13 their food in the water, aud admit and eject the water, of which if they are deprived, they die, as is the case with most of the fishes ; others, inasmuch as they get their food and spend their time in the water, but do not admit water, but air, and produce their young out of the water. There are many footed animals of this kind, as tlie otter and the latax* and the erocodile,t and winged animals, as the aiihyiaX and the diver,§ and footless animals, as the water-ser- * kvvdplg K. Xcira^. Most commentators understand by ivvSpig, the otter, (Lutra vnlgaris) ; the word occurs again only in Bk. viii. 7. § 5. wliere it is men- tioned with the KCKJTiop, (*' beaver"), the aaQkiJiov, the aarvpiov, and the Xdra^, as a wild quadruped which gets its food about lakes and rivers ; it is described as an animal that will bite a man, aud will not let go its hold till it hears the bone crack. Herodotus (\\. 109) mentions tvvcpieg with "bcavevs and other square-faced animals," as being taken about a large lake in the country of the Geloni or Budeni, (a Scythian race, who dwelt east of the Tanais ( Don). He adds that their skins were sewn to- gether as borders to cloaks. There can be no doubt that the h/vSplg of Aristotle denotes the otter, for besides the general agreement of its description with this animal, an additional proof may be seen in the figures of two water animals, resem- bling otters, with a fish in the mouth of each, preserved iu the Lithostrotum Brixjnes- tinum, or the Mosaic pavement at I'nienesti, and which have inscribed over them the Greek word ENHYAPI2. The reader may see an engraving of this Mosaic pavement in Shaw's Travels, 8vo. ed. ii. p. 294 ; or in the folio ed. 1738, p 2.5. This writer has also [Siippl. p. 84 (fol.)] a Dissertation on this pavement, for the history of which the reader may consult Montfaucon's Antiquities, vol. xiv. As to the Xc'iTci^, it is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusion with regard to its iden- tity; it is mentioned again in the above-named i)assage, and is described as being thicker than the kwvpig, and as having larger teeth, with which it cuts the branches by the river's banks; the hair of the ^a^aa? is said to be in appearance something between that of the seal and the stag. It is possible, as Pallas (Specileg. Zoolog. xiv. p. 42.) has conjectured, that the latuoc has been named from an ill-observed or ill- described specimen of beaver ; but may we not conjecture that some species distinct from the Castor Jibcr existed in the time of Aristotle (about 2,200 years ago) which has since become extinct ? This supposition is in some measure perhaps supported by the circumstance that a large extinct species of Beaver coexisted at a comparatively late period with the Castor Jiher, at one time a very abundant European species, though now, we believe, found with modified habits, only on the banks of the DaniTbe and in the neighbom-hood of the Black Sea. Remains of its gigantic con- gener ((?. Trognntheritm, C\n. Tror/o)itherium Cuvicri, Fisdi.)ha\e been found at Bacton and other places in Norfolk, associated in lacustrine deposits with the remains of the Manmioth, Rhinoceros, Ox, Horse, Roebuck and other Deer, &c. But its existence was first made known by the discoveiy of its fossil cranium on the borders of the Sea of Azof. Is it therefore too extravagant to surmise that it might have existed, together with the Common Beaver, in that and the neighbouring re- gions of Asia down even to the time of Aristotle, and might have come within his ken, either by actual observation, or, it might be, by recent traditional repute ? The word XdraK etymologically points to some animal that plunges into the water with a splash. f See note on Crocodiles, v. 27. § 2. % aWvin, a word of very uncertain meaning. See note on v. 8. § 4. § KoXyju/3ic, may denote some species of 'grebe'; the term as employed by Athenojus (ix. p. 39.5.) with the epithet t) ixiKpd, points apparently to the ' httle grebe' or " dabchick," {Podiceps minor), but Aiistotle (viii. 5. § 8.) mentions the probable that it is used iu no very restricted sense to denote either of the genera, Poiliceps or Colymbus. 144 OEIGINAL AETICLES. pent.* Some creatures, on the other hand, get their food in the water, and are unable to li\'e out of it, and yet admit neither air nor water, as the jelly-fish and the testaceous molluscs. Of aquatic animals, some belong to the sea, some to rivers, some to salt-water marshes, and some to fresh-water marshes, as the frog and the cordylus.'f Of marine animals, some belong to the deep sea, others to the shores, others to the rocks. Of terrestrial animals, some admit and eject the air, which is called inspiring and expiring, as man, and all the land animals which possess lungs ; others do not admit the air,]; although they live and get their food on the land, as the wasp and the bee and other insects. By insects I mean such animals that have incisions on the body, whether on the upper parts alone, or ou * vSpoQ, perhaps the common ringed snake, Natrix torqnata, which has a wide geographical range, and was doubtless known to Aristotle, tliough other water-loving opliidians may be comprised under the term, (see ii. 12. § 12.) f Kop^D/Xog. Commentators and naturalists have long been in doubt as to what animal the Cordijlus rcjiresents. Its characters as given by Aristotle arc the follow- ing — It is a quadraped both aquatic and terrestrial in its habits, possessed of gills, but destitute of lungs, and is the only known instance of an animal having at the same time feet and gills [De resplrat. x.) ; it swims with its feet and tail, which latter organ is somewhat like that of the glonis, (^Silurus f/laiiis?) see Hist. Aiiitn. i. 5. § 3 ; it takes its food on the land, (viii. 2. § 5.) Schneider {Ainwt. ail Hist. An. i. .5.) thinks Aristotle alludes to some genus of amj>hibia allied to the Siren lacer- Una, Lin., the mud eel of the U. S. of America, or to the Proteus angninus. Cuvier seems to have entertained the same opinion ; it must be confessed, however, that there are difficulties in the way of this explanation, for all the i?/rc««/read over insects that have been in oil they immediately revive, the passages being thereby opened. {Homil. 8 in Hexcem.^ HOTJGHTON O^ AEISTOTLE's HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 145 these as well as on the lower parts. Of land animals, many, as was said before, obtain their food from the water, but of aquatic animals which admit sea-water not one gets its food from the land. There are some animals which, for the first part of their existence, live in the water, and then assume other forms, and live out of it, as is the case with the gnats in the streams and the oistroi.* Again, some animals are stationary, others locomotive; the stationary animals are in the water, but of land animals not one is stationary. Now, in the water many animals li\^e in the condition of being fixed to something, as many kinds of testaceous molluscs ; and even the sponge appears to possess some sensation, evidence of which is to be seen in the fact that, as people say, it is with more difficulty torn away unless its removal be effected by stealth.f 8ome animals are both fixed and free, as is the case ^^dth a certain kind of acalephce so-called, J for some of these get free by night and take their food ; and many animals are free but motionless, as oysters and the holo- thuria§ so-called. Some are swimming animals, as fish, and those {cejjhalopodous) molluscs, which are soft externally, || and Crustacea, as the Carahoi*\ others are walking animals, as the race of crabs, for these, though water animals in their nature, go on their feet. Of land animals, some are winged, as birds and bees, and those differ in some respects one from the other; others are footed animals, of which some are Avalking, some creeping, some wriggling ; but there is no animal which is solely capable of flying in the same * This passage is regarded by Schneider as coriiipt. As to the ifiitiQ and olffrpof, see notes on i. 5. § 5. f For the different kinds of sponges mentioned by Ai-istotle, see v. 14, and note. It is interesting to find Aristotle asserting the animal nature of sponges, though the evidence given as a proof thereof may not recommend itself to the zoologist ; he expresses a doubt, however, in his ti'eatise {De partibus Animulium, iv. 5.) whether sponges ought to be classed with animals or plants. J aKaXi](pr). The fixed acaleph is represented by our sea anemone, ^cfm/a; the wandering acaleph by the Mcdusidcs, see iv. 7, and Pliny, N. //. ix. 45. § 6\o9ovpia, which occurs nowhere else in the Hist. A?iivi., is mentioned again in the Depart. Anim. iv. 5, with sponges, Pulmograde Medusaj, i-KvtviiovtQ) " and other marine things of a like nature." It is probable that the Echinoderm of that name {Ilolothuria) may be intended, though perhaps the asteroid polype Alcf/onium, may be included. With respect to the incapability of moving ascribed by Aristotle to the holothuria and some of the testaceous molluscs, it must be remembered that our author lived in days when aquai-iums were xmknown, and that he judged pro- bably from the almost lifeless appearance which certain marine animals exhibit when examined out of the water. II TCI fiaXc'iKia denote those genera of the Cephalopoda which have no externai shells, such as Sepia, LoUgo, and Octopua. See iv. 1. § 1. ^ KupajSoi. It is uncertain what crustacean this tenn signifies. The descrip- tion as given by Aristotle (iv. 2.) agrees in some respects with the 2^alinnrid<£. Schneider says " de Carabo arniotandum cum minime congruere cum cancro homaro Linn, quorum compararunt hucusque viri docti." He is inchncd rather to refer the Kcipa^oQ to the Cancer ehphas, Herbst. and has a dissertation on the subject in Dcr Gese.lhchoft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin Maijazin. Vol. I. P. iii, p. 163. seqq. 146 OEIGINAL AETICLES. way in wliich a fisli is solely capable of swimming, for the skin- winged animals walk, for a bat has feet, and a seal imperfect feet.* Of birds, some are weak-footed, which on this account are called footless (cLTTo^eg) ; but this little bird (airovc) is strong-winged, and nearly all the birds that are like it are strong-winged, but weak- footed, as the swallow and the drepanis, for all these birds are similar in their habits and in their wings, and in general appearance. Now, the apoiis makes its appearance at all seasons, but the drepanis only when it is wet during the summer, at which time it is both seen and caught, but on the whole the bird is rare.f Many animals too are capable of both walking and summing. There are also the following diflerences with regard to their modes of life and their actions ; some animals are gregarious, others solitary, both of footed, winged, and swimming animals ; and some are both gre- garious and solitary, and of these some live in political communities, others are not so united ; as instances of gregarious animals may be mentioned, amongst birds, the family of pigeons, the crane and the swan, but of birds with crooked talons not one kind is gregarious, — * KiKo\o[3o)iiivoQ," imperfect," or "truncated." The notion conveyed has been applied by Cuvier to one of his sub-classes, Bluttlata, forming the order Cetacea. + It is impossible to determine with satisfaction the Hirundinidte of Aristotle, or to refer the Greek terms anovg and SpsTravic to their resi^ective species; the ysXiSwv from its being described as destitute of down or feathers on the legs, as well as from other indications, seems to denote the Hirundo riistica ; but although many writers have identified the dirovg with the common Swift, (Cypselus apus); there is, as M. Camus has well obsei-ved, some grave objections to this opinion ; for Aristotle (ix. 21.) thus speaks of the olttovq. " Now the apodes, vahxch. some csll cijpselli, resemble swallows (^f^'^ovfe), as was before observed, for it is not easy to dis- tinguish them from swallows, except fi-om the fact of their having rough legs ; they make their nest in long hollows made of clay, (iv kv^eWktiv Ik tt/jXou TmrXafffxivaii; fiaKpalc.) wliich have just sufficient entrance for them. They build their nests in narrow places, luider rocks and caves, so as to avoid the observation both of man and animals." In some respects this passage would suit the House Martin, (i/. «/'Z'/c«,) but not in all; this bird, if it is safe to draw conclusions from what we see in this country, is by no means in the habit of avoiding men, on the contrary it courts their society ; nor can the nest be properly described as being ' louo-.' Again, the description quoted above will not allow us to identify the dTrovg with the common Swift, which neither avoids men nor builds nollow nests of clay. As to the drepanis (SpsTravie) which word occurs nowhere else in Aristotle, so far as we have been able to ascertain; it is etymologically highly descriptive of the su:kk-sha])cd wings of the ' Swift,' but it is difficult to believe that the bird should have been so rarely seen in Greece as stated by Aristotle. Is it possible that the SpEiravig may denote the Alpine Swift, {Cypselus aljiinus,) which, as Latham {Ge- neral Hut. of Birds, y'li. p. 324, 4to ed. 18-23) says, frequents ponds and marshes for fifteen or twenty days, after which it retires to the mountainous parts to breed; " which flies so high as to be out of sight, and is known only by being heard." M. Camus identilies the drojiuvis with the Sand Martin, (II. r/paria) and quotes the authority of M. de Monlbeillard for believing these birds were taken for tl)e sake of food which is fiit and good. There can be no doubt that Aristotle was acquainted with all the above named Eirundinida;, though we are unable to reconcile all liis statements with the known halnts of the diflcrcnt species. The proverb we often use, '' one swallow docs not nuike a sunnncr," is as old as our author ; see Eth. Mc. i. 6. ed. Bckker. HOUGHTON ON ARISTOTLE's HISTOKT OP ANIMALS. 147 amongst swimming animals many kinds of fish, as those which they call runners,* such as tunnies, paJamydes, and amice ;t man is both gregarious and solitary. Political animals are those amongst whom the work of all is some one common thing, which is not the case with all the gregarious animals ; such is man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, the crane ; and of these some are under rulers others are with- out any ruler ; the crane and the whole family of bees are under a ruler, but ants and an immense number of other animals are with- out a ruler. Some, both of the gregarious and solitary ammals^t''vi'e resident in one spot, others are migratory ; again some are carnivo- rous, others frugivorous, others omnivorous, others feed on particular things, as the family of bees and of spiders, for the former feed on honey and a few other things of a sweet nature, but spiders by chasing flies ; and other animals feed on fish ; some animals hunt ; some are accustomed to lay up their food in store, others do not so ; some ha^'e dwellings, others have none ; of those which have dwellings, the mole, the mouse, the ant, and the bee are examj)les ; of those which have none are many kinds of insects and quadrupeds. Again, with respect to their localities, some animals live in holes, as the lizard and the snake ; others above ground, as the horse and the dog ; some burrow holes, others do not ; some are nocturnal, as the owl and the bat, and others are diurnal in their habits. Again, with respect to tame and wild animals, some are always tame, as man and the mule, others are wild as the leopard and the wolf, while others can * dpofiddfc, a term of very questionable import, which is appHcd in a general sense to different fish ; another division is characterised by an equally unintelligible name, pvdhg (see iv. 8, § 13 ; v. 9, § 6 ; vi. 16. § 2; viii. 15, § 2, .5, 6), Aristotle gives us no clue whereby we may be able to comprehend the meaning of these terms. Whether ^pofiaStg may denote the swiftness at which some fish swim, or whether it has reference to their migratory habits it is dilficult to say ; and again, whether pvuStQ, is meant to express fish that go with the current, or what else, we cannot determine. M. Camus (ii. 667) says, " Cette expression (pvdSii;) vient d'un A^erbe grec, qui signifie fluere, couler ; or que peut-on entendre par des Poissons qui coulent, sinon des poissons qiii forment win bande qui passe prompfcment ? " Both the SpofiaSeg and the pvdStQ are gregarious and this is all that is positively known. Neither Gesner's explanation nor that of M. Camus is at all satisfactory that pvcidiQ denotes " fish that remain in great numbers in one place." — (See M. Camus' note, lower down). t There seems no reason to doubt that the Qvwoq of Aristotle is identical with the Tlujnnus vulgaris, Cuv. et Valenc The turmy fishery of the Mediterranean is of great antiquity. The 7r»jXo/xwe which (vi. 16, § 4,) is said to be in appear- ance a year younger than the Qvvvoq may perhaps denote the Bonito, {Thyn- ■iius pelawys) for which fish this term has been employed as the specific name by Cuvier and Valenciennes. As to the ajuia, it may be represented by the Pelamys sn-da, Cuv. et Valenc. Rondelet {L'Histoire des Poiss. p. 193) has figured this fish, and with much reason has identified it with the amia ; the P. sarda having long and strong teeth, by which character it is distinguished fi-om its immediate congeners, will suit Aristotle's description of the amia, winch he mentions as attacking large fish. The same author, says Cuvier, had observed the length of the gall bladder which is greater than in most other fishes. It must, however, be confessed that there is some uncertainty respecting the precise identification of the two latter Greek terms. 143 OEIGIN^AL ARTICLES. speedily be rendered tame, as the elepliaut for instance. Again, (ani- mals may be divided) in another way, for all tame races are also wild, as horses, oxen, pigs, sheep, goats and dogs. Some animals are able to make a loud noise, some are mute, others are possessed with a voice, and of these latter some have a language, others are incapable of uttering distinct sounds ; some are garrulous, others are silent, some are songsters, others are unable to sing ; but to sing and talk most at the season of copulation is common to all birds. Some animals fre- quent the fields as the wood-pigeon, others the hills as the hoopoe, others live with man as the pigeon. Again, some are very prone to venery, as the tribe of partridges and cocks, others preserve chastity, as the crow family which seldom copulate. Again, some animals are given to defend themselves, others to keeji watch against the approach of danger ; in the first class I include such as either attack other animals or defend themselves when injured ; by the second class I mean those which have in themselves something which serves as a means of avoiding suffering. In disposition animals differ in the follomng particulars ; some are gentle and demure and not stubborn, as the ox, while others are passionate, stubborn, and stupid, like the wild boar; others are sagacious and timid like the stag and the hare ; others mean and insidious like serpents ; others liberal, brave, and noble, like the lion ;* others generous, fierce, and insidious, like the wolf; by noble I mean that Avhich is descended from a good race, by generous that which does not degenerate from its own nature. And some animals are cunning and full of mischief, like the fox ; others lull of spirit, loving, and fawning, like the dog ; others gentle, and readily tamed, like the elephant ; others are modest, and always on the watch like the goose ; others are envious and fond of display, like the peacock. But of living things man alone is capable of deliberating ; many animals share in memory and ability to learn, but no other being except man is capable of reminiscence. Of each particidar kind of animals, both with respect to then' * The Lion is saifl to be ivytvr]g,the WoW ytwaiog. The former tenn may be properly rendered "noble;" it is not so easy to give a suitable translation of the latter Greek word. In the Rhetoric (ii. 15, § S), Aristotle makes again the same distinction between these two terms — ivytvi'ig is " that which refers to excellence of birth," yivvcuog "that which does not degenerate from its natiu'e" — the English word ' generons,' though now not used in the sense attributed to ytvvaloc, appears originally to have been sometimes so understood ; its opposite quality 'degencrous' or "degenerate," implies a falling from the original healthy and vigorous qualities that belong to the genus, [tie, oenvs) and in this sense the expression ' degenerate ' continues to be used ; and while we can speak of a ' degenerate' breed of cattle, are unable, b}^ the employment of the simple term ' generate,' or ' generous,' to express the opposite quahty of an animal perpetuating its own vigorous characteristics to succeeding generations ; JM. Camus renders yivvaioQhy "vigoureux;" it may be rcjuarked that the word "generous" has by some writers been applied to animals, as " a generous pack of hounds " — or " a fjencrous stud " ; we licar too " of (jcnerovs wine." Does not this epithet imply what Ai-istotlc means by ytwalog, viz. "that which will not degenerate." HOuanTON ON aeistotle's history of animals. 149 dispositions and modes of life we intend to speak hereafter with more precision.* XVI. — The Atlantis Hypothesis in its botanical aspect. — By Professor Oliver. A PEBirsAL, some few months ago, of certain passages in Professor Heer's important essay on the climate and vegetation of the Tertiary period,t induced me to investigate rather carefully the relations between the Tertiary and some existing Floras, especially with refer- ence to the hypothesis advanced by Professors Heer and Unger, that during the Miocene period there existed an Atlantic junction between * Although English Naturalists appear to have given little attention to the study of Aristotle and the Natural History of the ancients generally, the suhject has not escaped the notice of our Gennan friends ; on the contrary, careful enquiry would no doubt disclose much valuable pertinent matter. There are several published treatises which bear on the subject of Aristotle's Zoological Works, the titles of some of which are here added, though we confess we have only been able to consult a very few of them. Beckmann, J., De Mstoina naturali veterum lihcllus. Petrop. et Gotting. 1766. Gallisch, Fr. And., de Arhfotele rei naturalis scriptore. Lips. 1776. Schneider, J. G., Icthjolootfe Veten/m Specimhia. Franc, ad Viad. 1782. Probcn von der Fischkunde der Alton, in Leipz. Mag. Jalirg. 1783, p. 62. Petri Artedi SijiionijmJa Piscium Greeca et Latiiia emendafa, ^-c. Lips. 1789. Ucber die von Aristoteles lieifchrichencn Gaftungen uiid Arten von Krebsen. Rerl. Mag. 1807, p. 163.— Z^/*, 1818, iv. p. 1453. Billcrbeck, H. L. Jul. De Strigibus ah Aristotele, Plinio, cateraque Scriptorum Veterum grcge Commemorafis. Hildeshem. 1809. Kohlcr, J. Herm Aq, Aristotele>t, de Molluscis Cephalopodibiis (■Trepl rwi> na\aKiu)i'^ Comment. Rig. 1821. Werber, W. J. A., Arhtoteles Verdien.tt um die wissenschnffUche Bcarheitung der Zoologie und. scin Eitijluido, ^Sparganium, ^Potmnogeton, Smilax, Sabal, ^Gli/ptostrohus, *Taxodium, * Sequoia, Myrica, Carpimis, *Populus, ^Salix, *Quercus, *Ulmus, * Planera, * Platanus, ^Liquidambar, * This is Professor Heer's estimate, and I have not the means of analysing it. Dr. Hooker has directed my attention to the importance of ascertaining satis- factorily the exact proportions generally prevailing between ligneous and herbaceous plants, and the proportion of evergreens in tnily tropical floras. I presume all the Lauracece to have been reckoned among evergreens by Professor Heer. He says (Recherches, &c., p. 60) " * * • les Lam-iers et les Camphriers gardaient sans interruption leur verdoyante panire." — In th-e South United States, of the six species of Lauracese which occur there, four are deciduous, and in the Himalaya Dr. Hooker informs me some of the oi-der are commonly bare in winter. To the absolute numbers given by Professor Heer, I think comparatively little value can be attached, though probably the relative proportions in, for example, his table of the sequence of orders, may be sustained, t Recherches sur le Climat, &c. p. 5.5, N. H. K— 1862. M 11 35 10 17 1 2 2 20 6 25 10 35 5 25 26 131 3 16 154 OKTGIJfAL ARTICLES. ^Polygonum, *Salsola, *Laurus, Persea, *Cinnamomum, '^Emho- thrium, Drijandra, Ficus, *Leptoineria, *Diosp>/ros, *Acerates, Fraximis, *LirioJendron, *Acer, Ilex, Zizyphus, Berchemki, *Jihatnnics, *Paliurus, Pirns, *Juglans, Plerocarya, *Colutea, *Pobinia, *Gleditsckia, Caesalpinia, * Cassia. In discussing tlie cliaracter of the Swiss Tertiary Plora,* its general relations to existing Floras are indicated. The methods of comparision employed, Prof. Heer says " incontestably prove that, at the Tertiary period Switzerland was inhabited by types which are now scattered over every part of the world, but of which the ma- jority correspond to American species ; Europe ranks only second, Asia third, Africa fourth, and New Holland fifth. In Europe it is the Mediterranean region ; in America, the Southern United States ; in Asia, Japan, the region of the Caucasus and Asia Minor ; in Africa, in proportion to their area, the small islands of the Atlantic, which support the gi'eatest number of analogous species." Speaking of the distribution in the Tertiary, as compared with the present period, of generic types, he selects Juglandese as offering a marked contrast between their present wide, and former restricted area. Prof. Heer limits the present distribution of Pterocarya to the Caucasus, Juglans to Persia and North America, and JEngelhardtia to the Sunda Islands. Two species of Pterocarya, however, grow in Japan, three species of Juglans are recorded from the same region, where also another generic type is met with in Platycarya {Portuncea, Lindl.), and Engelhardtia occurs in the Himalaya. Carya is not held to be generically distinct from Juglans by Messrs. Hooker and Bentham. Viewed in respect of the sjoecies which contributed most largely to the mass and physiognomy of the tertiary vegetation, he says, "The Elora of Japan with its abundance of Camphor-trees and its Cflyptos- trohi, that of the Atlantic islands with its Laurels, the American Flora with its numerous evergreen Oaks, Maples, Poplars, Plane-trees, Liqiiidavihar, Pohinia, Sequoia, Taxodium, and ternate- leaved Pines, and finally that of Asia Minor with its Planera and Populus miita- lilis occupy the first place." Without distinction of stage in the Swiss deposits, the first rank, in respect to abundance of indi- viduals, Prof. Heer assigns to Lauraceae, second, Cupidiferae. In the first stage, Proteaceae, Khamnaceae and Cupressiueae predominated; in the second, Ehamnaceae and Palmaceae; third Proteaceae; fourth, Salicaceae, Aceraceae, Papilionaceae, Juglandeae and Sapindaceae. The climate of Europe he believes to have been, during the lower miocene, about 13°, and the upper miocene 16° Fahr. warmer than at present, while the large relative proportion of ligneous, evergreen and aquatic species, with layers of lignite, bear testimony to its ample humidity. With a view to avoid imnecessary repetition in the following paragraphs, and to save space, I have drawn up the subjoined table, showing the distribution of existing genera of the Swiss Tertiary in the recent Floras of Europe, Japan, of Europe and Asia (including Japan), taken together, and the Southern States of America. * Becherches sur le Climat, &c. p. 58. OLIYER ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS. 155 1 c3* d a ca Genera of Swiss fl3 P. o 03 £.2 55 a ^1 Genera of Swiss q5 P. 2 3 33 to o at *ri ^1 Tertiary. 'r-t p3 & LJ .3 Tertiary. w •-s ti3 .S "2hJ w 1-5 < Iz; < 'A Monocoti/ledons. Anxiido Sassafras'*^ 1? I Phragmites . 1 Cinnamomum 1 1 Paniciiiu 1 Pimelca . Oryza . Ela;agnus'" . 1 1 1 Cyperus 1 Protea . Scirpus . 1 Persoonia Carex . 1 Grevillea Juncus . 1 Hakca . Smilax . 1 Dry and ra Cliamserops'^" . 1 Embothrium . Sabal . 1 Banksia Manicaria llhopala Geonoma Lomatia Typha . 1 Leptonieria . Sparganium . 1 Aristolochia . 1 1 Potamogeton . 1 1 Erica 1 Naias 1 Andromeda 1 1 Butomus^ Clethra'7 1 Hydrocharis . Monotropa 1 1 Iris 1 1 Vaccinium I 1 Puya Diospyros Macreightia'^ . 1 1? 1 Dieotylcdons. Styrax'^ . 1 1 Libocediiis-* . Bumelia'^ 1 Widdriugtonia Myrsine 1 Taxodiimi^ . 1 Porana . Glyptostrobus 1 Mcnyanthes . 1 Podocarpus . 1 Acerates" Sequoia Fraxinus 1 1 Pinus . 1 1 Lonicera 1 1 Liquid ambar'^ 1 Vibm-num 1 1 Populus 1 Gardenia Salix . 1 1 Hedera . 1 \ Myrica . 1 Panax . 1 Alnus . 1 Cornus . 1 1 Betula . 1 Vitis . 1 Carpinus 1 Weinmannia^^ Ostrya . Ranunculus . 1 I Corylus'' 1 Clematis 1 1 Quercus 1 Liriodendron . 1 Ulmus=' 1 Berberis 1 I Plaiiera Nymphaea 1 1 Ficus 1 Nelunibium . 1 Ai-tocai-pus"^ . Lepidium 1 1 Platanus^ . Clypeola 1 Polygonum . 1 Samyda' Salsola . 1 Tcrminalia'' . 1 Pisoma='<* Combretum" . Laui-us . 1 Myrtus . 1 Persea . Eugenia' } Benzoin I 1 Metrosideros . 1 M 2 156 ORIGINAL AETICLES. C d C C3 -03 >» H , rt <« a O P. (s-E -> < •a Eucaly]3tus . Ptcrocaiya 1 Sterculia^ 1 Prunus . 1 1 1 Grewia Amygdalus . 1 Acei" 1 1 1 Crataegus 1 1 1 Negiiiiclo'' 1 1 Spirjsa . 1 1 1 Sapindus 1 1 Cytisus^. I Koelreuteria 1 Medicago 1 Dodonaea 1 1 Trigonella 1 Baiiisteria* Robiuia . 1 1 Hirsea* . Psoralea 1 1 Coriaria • 1 Indigofera 1 1 Euphorbia^* 1 1 Tephrosia I Pittosporum'' Glycyrrhiza . 1 Celastrus 1 1 Colutea . 1 1 El£eodendi-on Phaseolus 1 1 1 Ilex 1 1 Pterocaipus . Zizyphus 1 Dalberma Paliurus 1 Sophora 1 1 1 Ccanothus'^ 1 Edwardsia Berchemia 1 Cercis . 1 1 Rhamnus 1 1 Gleditschia . 1 Khus . 1 1 Bauhiiiia Zantlioxylum 1 Ceratonia 1 Ptelea^ . 1 Coesalpinia 1 1 Ailanthus Cassia . 1 Juglans . 1 1 Acacia . 1 Carya . 1 Mimosa . 1 The Tertiary and existing Mora of Europe. — The genera common to the Tertiary Flora of Switzerland, and the recent Flora of Europe, as shown in the above table, are about 76 in number ; (Dicots. 60 ; Monocots. 16) or 12 fewer than are common to the Tertiary beds and the South United States Flora, and but 1 fewer than are common to the same and Japan. Of the characteristic orders and groups of the Swiss Tertiary the constituents in the existing Flora of Europe are — Gen. Species. Gen. Species PalmaD 1 1 fLauracese 1 1 fConifersB 7 40 fProteaceae Populus . 7 Ehamuacese '. 3 21 Salix 60-70 Juglandese Myrica . 1 fLeguminosfe 55 852 Quercus . 12-15 fAceraceae 1 8 Ulmus 3 tAmentacese • 11 130 Planera . 1 tCyperacesB . 13 257 Ficus 1? fGramineaj . 91 554 Platanus . 1-3 fCompositse 138 1400 Liquidambar OLIVEE ON THE ATLANTIS nTPOTHESIS. 157 The nine largest orders of the Swiss Tertiary are marked f iu the above list. According to Professor Heer,* the recent Flora of Switzerland includes 24 natural orders with ligneous species,t of which IS are common to the Tertiary beds. J These latter are — Coniferae, Amen- taceae, TJlmaceae, Elaeagnese, Aristolochiaceae, Thymelese, Apocyneje, Oleacese, Ericaceae, Caprifoliaceos, Araliacese, Cornaceae, Tiliace;©, Iliciuese, Ehamnaceae, Celastraceae, Acerinese, Berberidea). Tliese orders include in the recent Flora 152 species, in the Tertiary 253. In Britain there are about 1230 Phanerogamia (Dicots. 923, Monocots. 307) referred to 479 genera (Dicots. 3(35, Monocots. 114), and 88 natural orders (Dicots. 73, Monocots. 15). About 116 species (9 per cent.) are ligneous. Of Bi'itish genera about 48 are common to the Swiss Tertiary (Dicots. 37, Monocots. 11). The Bovey Tracey fossil remains Professor Heer has shown to be pre-eminently characterized by Miocene species. § Out of 49 species which have been discovered, 20 occur iu Miocene beds on the Continent. The Bovey Flora includes the following recent genera : Phragmites Laurus \ Nyssa\\ Gardenia'^ Sequoia Eucalyptus ? j Fterocarya ? Vitis Ficus Eugenia \ Vaccinium Anona\\ Quercus Celastnis j Andromeda Nymipli^a. Professor Heer points out that none of the Bovey species are common to the Miocene of Iceland, and that, excepting Sequoia and Quercus, the genera are also distinct. In Iceland there are, according to Dr. Lindsay's list (1860J, 426 Phanerogams (Dicots. 290, Monocots. 136) belonging to 159 genera (Dicots. 119, Monocots. 40), and about 48 natural orders (Dicots. 39-40, Monocots. 8). The only woody plants are birch, willow, juniper, and rose. Common to the Swiss Tertiary there are in Iceland Gen. Orders. Dicots. . . . . 12 . . 19-20 Monocots. . . . ij . . Q The following genera occur in Tertiary beds in Iceland : — Spar- qanium,Pinus, Sequoia, Betula, Alnus, Salix (rare), Corylus, Quercus, Ulmus, Platanus, Acer {A. otopterix, being the commonest Tertiary tree), Vitis, Liriodendron, Rhamnvs, Rhus, Juglans. The Tertiary and Japanese Floras, ^ifra,p. 181.) 160 ORIGINAL AETICLES. Tlie largest Orders are in the S. States. N. STATEi9. Gen. Species. Gen. Species. t ComjiositaB . 81 354 83 273 t Cyperacese . 21 216 16 213 t Grraminese . 52 176 65 162 t Leguminosae . 49 145 m 91 Labiatse . 23 64 33 49 Scrophnlariacese . 23 61 26 54 Ericaceae* . 19 55 37 62 Eosaceae , . 17 54 18 71 Orcliidaceae . 19 51 24 111 Eanunculaceae . . 17 50 21 49 In the Northern States Eanunculacese is the ninth order, Labiata^ the tenth. The Orders marked f are included in the nine largest of the Swiss- Tertiary. It has been observed above that out of the nine largest Japanese Orders, six were thus marked (ante, p. 178). The groups which especially characterize United States forest vegetation, are Taxodium, Magnolias, Hickories, "Walnuts, Planeray Negundo, Liriodendron, Maples, Oaks, &c. The largest Orders (besides the four marked above) and characteristic Groups of the Swiss Tertiary in the States are — S. States. N. States. Gen. SpecieSi Gen. Species. Amentaceae 10 41 12 62 Proteaceae LaurineaB 4 6 4 5 Conifera3 8 19 8 20 Aceraceae . 2 16 2 6 Palmas . 2 4 Popvilus . 3 6 Sahx 6 19 MyricaJ 2 2 Quercus 20 18 Ulmua . 4 4 Planera . 1 1 Picus 3 Platanus 1 1 Liquidambar . 1 1 Ehamnaceae . '. 8 10 4 6 Leguminosae . . 49 145 36 91 Juglandeae . 2 11 2 9 * Includes Vaccinicte, Monotropeae, Pyroleae. X Myiicacese in Southern States, 3 gen. 4 species. „ Northern „ 2 „ 3 „ OllVEE ON THE ATLANTIS HYPOTHESIS. 16l In the Northern States, according -to Dr. Gray,* 218 (10-3 per cent.) are shrubs or woody vines, and 130 (6'2 per cent.) trees. ]VIr. Lesquereux mentions the folloAving genera as having been identified in North American Tertiary beds.f Probably Miocene plants, from Vancouver and BeDingham Bay, "Washington Territory — Populus Sahx Quercus Planera Picus ? Cinnamomum Persoonia Diospyros Acer Platanus ? Salisburia Chamserops Sequoia. From Pleiocene beds, Tennessee : — Laurus, Prunus, Quercus, Fagus, identified with recent species of South Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico : and from Pleistocene beds, Kentucky, — Quercus, Castanea, XJlmus, Planera, Prinos, Geanothus, Carya, Gleditschia, Acorus, all recent forms now found along the Atlantic coast. In the Vancouver beds Proteaceae are dominant. Prof Goeppert mentions the following genera as having been found in the Miocene beds in Alaska and the neighbouring Aleutian Islands,! Gaulinia, Salix, Alnus, Taxodium dubium, (probably also found in Kamtschatka), Sequoia, Juglans ?, Populus. Belation of the Japanese Flora, also that of the Old World generally, to the Flora of the Eastern States of North America. — The general relations of the Plora of Japan and also those of the Plora of the Northern States have been most ably discussed by Prof Asa Gray. Theformerinapaperinthe Memoirsof the American Academy,§ the latter in Silliman's Joui-nal. || For much interesting detail I must refer to these valuable essays, from the last-named of which I borrow the following facts referring to the Flora of the Northern States, not having, myself, tabulated the recent European and American Floras with a view to bring out their analogies and difierences farther than is noticed under previous heads. According to Dr. Gray there are 321 species (Dicots. 180, Monocots. 141) common to the Northern States and Europe out of a total phanerogamous Flora in the former of 2091 species (Dicots. 1490, Monocots. 601). If closely representative be added to identical species, this number would be raised to about 435, or over one-fifth of the whole, while, on the other hand, but about 114 species (of 92 genera) are represented by identical or strictly analogous species on the Oregon and Californian side. 326 Northern United States genera belong to Europe, but of these 284 are difiused over the greater part of the Northern Hemisphere. Compared with Europe the Northern States are rich in ordinal * Sill. Journ., Ser. ii., xxiii. 374. f Sill. Joiivn. 1859, i. 359. % Bull. Ac. Imp. St. Petersburg, iii. 448. § N. Ser. vi. 377. II Ser. ii. xxii. Sept. 1856. 162 OEIGINAL ARTICLES. types, possessing 26 Nat. Orders uot in Europe, while Europe lias only 7 to 10 orders absent from the States. Nevertheless the Euro- pean families give character to the vegetation. Dr. G-ray says farther, that of these 26 orders 20 have their principal development in troi^ical regions, while 3 of the remaining orders have tropical or sub-tropical representatives.* This circumstance is noteworthy when we consider that the mean annual temperature of the Northern States is lower than that of "Western Europe. I find about 300 genera (Dicots. 21'2, Monocots. 00) are common to the Southern States and Japan. To this number the Northern States add 33 (Dicots. 24, Monocots. 9), making a total of 330—340 in Eastern North America. The Japanese orders not represented in the Eastern States are as follow, with the number of their genera and species. Lardizabaleae 2 gen . 5 species. Alangiaceae 1 gen. , 2 species, Bixaceae 1 )) 1 55 Dipsaceae 1 55 1 Pittosporaceae 1 >5 1 5) Jasmineae 1 55 5? Stercudiaceae 1 ?> 1 55 Myoporineae 1 55 1 Elseocarpeae 1 J> 2 55 Gi-esneraceae 1 55 1 Aurautiaceae 1? J> 2? 55 Helwingiaceae 1 55 1 Coriarieae 1 5» 1 55 Proteaceae 1 55 1 Meliosmeae 1 55 2 55 Chloranthaceae 3 55 4 Meliaceae 1 » 3? 55 Piperaceae 1 5) 1 Tamaricineae 1 55 1 55 Antidesmeae 1 55 1 Begoniaceae 1 55 1 55 Ophiopogoneae 2 55 2 About 320 Japanese genera (Dicots. 274, Monocots. 50) are absent from the States ; of these the most remarkable and characteristic of the Japan Flora seem to belong to Berberideae and Lardizabaleae, Ternstrcemiaceae, Zanthoxylaceae and allies, Eosaceae, Laiu'aceae, and Coniferae. A marked difference has been indicated (supra) between the Floras of the East and West Coasts of North America in the relatively small number of species common to these Floras as compared with the number common to the Eastern States and Europe. Dr. G-ray, in his memoir on the Japanese Flora,t points out that there are fewer Japanese species represented in West North America than in Europe, while there are more in East North America than in either. If strictly identical species alone be regarded, however, the European proportion is favoiu-ed. In his table, including 580 Japanese entries, * The same botanist points out tlie almost complete deficiency of forms peculiar to West Europe in Temperate America ; a deficiency remarkably contrasting with the large niunber of East American forms repeated or represented in Eastern Asia. The only genera divided between East North America and Europe which Dr. A. Gray can find are Ostrya, Narthecium, Psamma, Cakilc, Scolopciulr'mm ? t 1. c. p. 437. OLIVEE ON THE ATLAKTIS HYPOTHESIS. 163 there are, having corresponding representative species, in Europe, over 48 per cent., identical species 27 per cent. "West North America, about 37 „ „ 20 „ East „ „ „ 61 „ „ 23 „ Moreover of 353 extra- European genera in the Northern States 130 are common to East Temperate Asia, while but 87 occur in AVest North America. About 90 genera are represented in North America and Japan which are absent from Europe, and of these 65 do not occur in extra-tropical "Western North America,* where farther, no order is represented wanting in the Northern States of East America, excepting Grarryaceae and Hydroleaceae, and these both occur in the Southern States. The Atlantic Islands Flora.f — The American element in the Flora of the Atlantic Islands is very subordinate, while Mediterranean, with a proportion of peculiar or Macaronesian types, greatly pre- dominate, the former very remarkably. The African element is, as is well known, singularly deficient. Prof. Heer points out as a trace of the connection which he conceives to have existed formerly between these Islands and the New "World, the American genera Clethra, Bystropogon, Cedronella and Oreodaphne, species of which occur in the Madeiras and Canaries. With regard to these, however, it may be observed that Clethra is not exclusively a New "World type. One species is Japanese and one or two grow in the Philippines and Borneo. The present focus of the genus appears to be in South America. But one species, C arborea, grows in the Atlantic Islands, in some of which it is very abundant. As to Bystropogon, Messrs. "Webb and Berthelot limit the genus to Macaronesian species, excluding the section Mintliostacliys, under which Mr. Bentham groups the American forms in the Prodromus. At best, this genus, as Ml-. Bentham informs me, scarcely differs in technical characters from Mentha, though the habit of the island species is very different. Of Cedronella, another Labiate plant, but one species grows in the Islands, G. canariensis. Hasskarl describes a species from Japan. Oreodaphne prevails in the West Indian Islands and South America; it is unrepresented in the States ; species occur, also, in South Africa, Madagascar and Mauritius. Recently Mr. Mann, botanical collector to the Royal Gardens at Kew, has sent to Sir W. J. Hooker two or three species of Laurel from the mainland of West Tropical Africa, wdiich, although not yet determined, form a connecting link, relieving the isolation of the Atlantic species, both of Oreodaphne and Fersea. I have examined the Elora of Webb and Berthelot and can find scarcely any evidence to add to that noted by Prof. Heer. The genus Messerschnidtia, limited by these authors to Canarian and * Gray, 1. c. 441. t For some excellent obsei-vations upon the general relations of the Madeira and Canary Flora, see a paper by Sir C. J. F. Bunbury, Linn. Proc. Bot. i. 1. 164 OEIGINAL ARTICLES. Tropical American forms is, according to De Candolle, but a section of Tournefortia, including in one subsection the Canarian plant, while other subsections include two African and an Indian species. Of the genus Persea, of which one species (P. indicd) is a domi- nant tree in the Canaries, Madeira, and Azores, two species grow in the Southern States, while others are found in New Grenada, Peru, and as far South as Chili. Commelyna agraria, Euphorhia tenella, and Bidens pilosa cannot be accepted as indigenous to the Atlantic Islands. We may"gather from the above paragi'aphs that a close and very peculiar analogy subsists between the Flora of Tertiary Central Eu- rope and the recent Eloras of the American States and of the Japanese region ; an analogy much closer and more intimate than is to be traced between the Tertiary and recent Floras of Europe. We find the Tertiary element of the Old World to be intensified towards its extreme eastern margin, if not in numerical preponderance of genera, yet in features which especially gave a character to the Fossil Flora. I have taken occasion to show, in the above notices, that this accession of the Tertiary element is rather gradual and not abruptly assumed in the Japan islands only. Although it there attains a maximum, we may trace it from the Mediterranean, Levant, Caucasus, and Persia, in Chamcerops, Platanus, Liquidamhar, Ptero- carya, Juglans, ^c, then along the Himalaya and through China ; the Eastern Himalaya and China, indeed, forming with Japan one great botanical region. The table given at p. 175 shows that about 120 Tertiary genera are represented in Europe and Asia, including Japan, taken together, while, as stated already, but 88 are represented in the Southern American States. We learn also that during the Tertiary epoch, counterparts of Central European Miocene genera certainly grew in North-west America, amongst them, one marked genus now limited to the Japanese region (Salisburia). We note, further, that the present Atlantic Islands Flora affords no substantial evidence of a former direct communication with the main land of the New World, though the cu'cumstance of an extraordinary predominance in it of the Mediterranean element tends to countenance the probability of the hy[)othesis of E. Forbes and others that a coimection formerly existed between these Islands and some part of Western Europe. The consideration of these facts leads me to the opinion that botanical evidence does not fiivour the hypothesis of an Atlantis. On the other hand, it strongly favom's the view that at some period of the Tertiary epoch. North-eastern Asia was united to North-western America, perhaps by the line where the Aleutian chain of islands now extends, since there is sufficient ground to belie\'e that the temperature in that latitude was liigh enough to allow the migra- tion of types, which at the present period, are characteristic of lower OLITEE ON THE ATLATfTIS HYPOTHESIS. 1G5 latitudes.* Professor Heer himself says,t " Comme les types japon- nais occupent line place importante dans notre flore tertiare, il est permis de supposer qu'a I'epoque tertiare le Japon etait joint an contiaent Americain." — Tlie general character of the Tertiary Flora appears to me to be almost as conspicuous,— in some respects more conspicuous — in Japan than in the American States. We have shown that of the nine largest orders numerically of the Tertiary, six are included in the nine largest of Japan, and but four in the nine largest of the Southern States ; while, farther, the remaining three of the nine largest Tertiary orders are much more developed in Japan than in the Southern States. They are Lauracese, in Japan 11 gen. 25 species. In So. States 4 gen. 6 species. Aceraceae „ 2 „ 15 „ „ 2 „ 6 „ Proteacese „ 1 „ 1 „ „ „ „ The Japanese flora is the only one which I have found presenting such close correspondence in this respect with that of the Tertiary period. In Australia 5, India 4, Europe 3, and in the New World 4, J of the largest orders of each respectively, are included in the cor- responding nine of the Tertiary. Nor must the large percentage of ligneous species in the Japanese (40 per cent.) as compared with the Southern United States flora (22 per cent.) be overlooked. That the Tertiary element should be more decidedly expressed in a comparison of the genera in Eastern Asia than in the American States, is by no means required unless we can show that its development and persistence have been equally favoured by climatal and other conditions in both regions since the Tertiary period. It might have been fairly expected, moreover, that on Professor Heer's hypothesis, the North American element in th