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ANNUAL RECORD

OF

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY

FOR I 87I.

EDITED BY

SPENCER F. BAIKD,

WITn THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT MEN OF SCIENCE.

'* L

NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.

FRANKLIN SQUARE.

1872.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by

Harper & Brothers,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE.

The design of the present work is to furnish a brief, yet
sufficiently full, mention of the more important discoveries
in the various departments of science during the year 1871,
selecting, however, only such as appear likely to excite a
general interest, or to be of lasting importance. The spe-
cial student of Astronomy, of Chemistry, or of the physical
sciences generally, of Natural History in any of its brandi-
es, etc., will, of course, not confine himself to the brief ab-
stracts of a work like this. Such persons can only be satis-
fied with the publications devoted particularly to their sev-
eral chosen departments of science, in the pages of which
they may hope to be enabled to pursue their studies and in-
vestigations through all the minutest details of progress.

The very complete series of publications of learned soci-
eties, and of journals specially devoted to various branches
of science, belonging to the Smithsonian Institution, have
been kindly placed at the service of the editor by its Secre-
tary. With the facilities thus furnished for surveying the
field of science, with the aid, in addition, of numerous for-
eign and domestic scientific serials received by mail for
use in this connection (enumerated at the end of the vol-
ume), the editor trusts that not much of a general interest
or importance has been overlooked.

In providing for the general public, there is, of course, a
great margin for varying tastes and judgment, and no two
minds would probably agree exactly as to what should be
selected and what omitted. In making his choice, the edi-
tor has endeavored to do proper justice to all the various
subjects of scientific interest and research, and to neglect
nothing of real interest, and he has endeavored not to al-
low his own partialities to influence him unduly in his se-

iv PREFACE.

lections. How far lie has succeeded he must leave others
to judge. He may, however, be permitted to add and
justice to those, to whose friendly aid he owes so much,
requires that he should do so that in gathering material
and in adapting it fur the purposes in question, he has been
so fortunate as to secure the assistance of some of the most
eminent men of science of this country, some of whom
have, in addition, furnished quite a number of original
communications containing accounts of personal discover-
ies and observations.

In preparing the matter of the present volume, the de-
sign has been to furnish abstracts only, divesting the differ-
ent subjects, as far as practicable, of mere technicalities,
and omitting what was not properly relevant. In many
instances, indeed, a single article has been made to embrace
data from a number of different sources, while not unfre-
quently are included original ideas, unpublished elsewhere,
and derived from personal investigation or supplied by col-
la boration as already mentioned. In very few cases has a
1 iteral copy of any article been made, and this only where
farther condensation or other change appeared inexpedient.

A large portion of the contents of this volume has al-
ready appeared in the " Editor's Scientific Record" of
Harper's Monthly, and the " Scientific Intelligence" of the
Weekly ; some of it also in the Philadelphia Public Ledger
and elsewhere. It is here, however, arranged somewhat in
systematic order for the benefit of special students, and
more or less revised, and in book form, with the original
references appended, as explained in the table on page
G14. The remainder of the book, embracing material
which could not be introduced into the journals referred to
for want of Bpace, is here presented for the first time.

Smithsonias Institution, Washington, March 1, 1872.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.*

PEEFACE Page iii

GENERAL SUMMARY OF PROGRESS xvii

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY 1

ASTRONOMY.
The Sun: Eclipse of December, 1870, 3; Corona, 1,2; Protuberances, G,
12 ; Spots, 7 ; Explosion in, 12 ; Period of Rotation, 13 ; Temperature, 6.
The Stars : Parallax of, 10. The Planets s Erato, 13 ; New Asteroids, 15 ;
Transit of Venus in 1874, 14. The Moon : Mass of, 9. Comets : Tele-
scopic, 14; Nature of, 15; Spectrum of Encke's, 17. Meteorites, 11, 18.
Nebulae, 8. The Aurora, 10. Zodiacal Light, 37.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY 10

TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS.

Water-courses, 19. Lakes : Blue Color of, 38. Tides, 20 ; Action on the
Earth, 21 ; Influence of atmospheric Pressure on, 37. Gravity of the Earth,
22 ; Pendulum Experiment in India, 39.

METEOROLOGY.
The Atmosphere in general : Ozone, 22; Climate of Peru, 24 ; of Michi-
gan, 35 ; Influence of Trees, 25 ; Influence of the Moon, 36. Winds : Pre-
diction of Gales, 31 ; Winds of the North Atlantic, 33 , Calm in Storms, 31.
Pressure : Influencing Tides, 37 ; Determination of Heights, 34. Tem-
perature ; Cycles of, 26 ; Waves of, 27 , of the Air at different Heights, 27 ;
- of the Earth at different Depths, 27 ; Cold on Mount Washington, 32 ;

. Freezing of Water, 29 ; Radiation, 37 ; in Mount Cenis Tunnel, 27, 37.
Moisture : Rain-fall, 22, 29 ; Variation with Altitude, 30 ; Formation of
Clouds, 24 ; New Form of Clouds, 30 ; Direct Condensation by Glaciers, 25 ;
Hail, 36 ; Insects in Hailstones, 218 -, Storms, 23, 35. Instruments : Ther-
mometer, 28; Barometer, 35; Weathercock, 31. Observations: Smith-
sonian Institution, 27 ; Storm-signal Sendee, 32 ; Station at the Azores, 34.

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND 41

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
Magnetism : Curves, 41 ; Action on Gases, 50. Electricity of the Atmos-
phere, 43 ; Opposite Currents, 50. Apparatus : Batteries, 41, 42 ; Amal-
gam, 43.

* In the arrangement of articles in the body of the work, it was found difficult to
place them iu systematic sequence. The effort has been made in the Table of Con-
tents to rectify any misplacement of paragraphs, so as to bring together those most
nearly related, and in proper order.

Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.

LIGHT.
Chemical Action on Petroleum, 45, 78. Spectral Analysis of Blood, 45; of
Water, 46; Diffusion of, 46; Fluorescence, 4G; Color of Lake and Sea Wa-
ter, 17 ; Vision, Duration of, 44 ; Sensitive Flames, 43.

HEAT.
Boiling Points, 47; in Coal, 49; of Aqueous Solutions, 49.

SOUND.

Phenomena on Mount Sinai, 47.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY 51

Gases : Absorption of, by Charcoal, G7. Oxygen : Rusting of Iron, 51.
Hydrogen, 60. Iodine, 71. Sulphur : Aqueous Solvent for, 68. Car-
bon : Plumbago, 65 ; in Steel, 66. Manganese : in Blood and Milk, 68 ;
in Acorns, 288. Potassium in Tobacco-smoke, 73. Cerium a Test for
.Strychnine, 72. Gold : in Quartz, 53 ; Non-amalgamable, 54. Silver : Al-
loy, 54 ; Testing of, 54 ; Brittle, 78. Copper in Pyrites, 55. Iron : Mi-
croscopic Character, 61 ; Purification by Sodium, 62; Removal of Phos-
phorus, 63 ; Graphite in, 65 ; Gas in r 66. Steel : Microscopic Structure,
1 ; Heaton, 63, 64 ; Berard, 63 ; Bessemer, 64 ; Carbon in, 66. Alloys :
Silver, 54 ; Bronze, 55 ; Sodium and Potassium, 55. Plating of Metals : on
Fabrics, 56, 61; on Zinc by Iron, 56; Nickel and Cobalt, 57, 58; Tin, 59;
Plating of Organic Matrices, 60. Reduction of Metals: by Hydrate of
Chloral, 52 ; by Chloride of Iron, 53 ; of Native Sulphides, 52. Alloys, 54,
532 ; Phosphorus Bronze, 532.

Milk, 80. Dambose, 79. Alkaloids : Coniin, Synthesis of, 73 ; Regia-
nine, 74 ; new one in Cinchona, 75. Chloral Hydrate, Test for, 72 ; as a re-
ducing Agent, 52. Glycerine : Butyric Acid in, 72 ; Pure, 79. Coal-tar :
Acrichine, 77. Petroleum, Action of Light on, 45, 79. Resin, Solidifica-
tion of, 68. Gun-cotton, Non-explosive, 69. Water-glass, 70. Chrome
Alum, 78. Sulphuric Acid, 71. Carbonate of Lime, 67. Bichromate
of Potash, 518, 519.

Chemical Tests : for Ha?min, 66 ; Strychnine, 72 ; Hydrate of Chloral,
72 ; Benzole, 72 ; Butyric Acid, 72.

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY 81

MINERALOGY.
Iron: Homeric, 81; in Guayaquil, 81. Silver : Lake Superior Mines, 82.
Tin : New Localities of, 93. Silicon : Quartz Crystals, 93. Carbon :
Diamonds in Xaiuhophyllite, 81 ; South African, 82.

GEOLOGY.
America: Missouri, 82; Nevada, 86 ; South Carolina (Phosphate Beds),
87 j New England and the Provinces, 94, 95, 101 ; Lake Superior (Silver
Mines), 92; California, 102; American Lakes, 83; Atlantic Coast, 84, 97,
101; White Mountains, SO; Jamaica, 97; Greenland, 96 ; Pliocene Period,
91. Europo: the Alps, 99; Great Britain, 88, 90. Asia : Caves of the
Altai, 89. Africa : Diamond Fields, 82.

Ice Action : North American Coast, 84 ; White Mountains, 86 ; New
England, 94, 96; Greenland, 96 ; Scotland, 84; Switzerland, 98 ; Spitzber-
n,94.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

Coal and Petroleum : New Localities, 93 ; New Variety of Coal, 100 ; in
Nova Scotia, 100 ; Origin of, 286.

Fossils : Caves of Altai, 89 ; Kent's Cave, 90 ; Vegetable, in California,
102. See also Zoology ; Botany.

Miscellaneous : Volcanoes, 82 -, Earthquakes, 98 ; Pre-glacial Heat, 85 ;
Land Slides, 98 ; Microscope in Geology, 83, 92 , Guano, 101 , Hydro-geol-
ogy, 88 ; Artesian Wells, 92 ; Artesian Borings, 92.

F. GEOGRAPHY 103

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

General Problems, 103; Ocean Currents in general, 113; of the Mediter-
ranean, 111 ; Sargasso Sea, 115 , North America in the Pliocene Period, 91 ;
Sea-bottom of the Atlantic, 97.

EXPLORATIONS.
The deep Seas : On the Porcupine, 127 ; in the Baltic, 128 ; in the Adri-
atic, 126 ; of the School-ship Mercury, 147 ; of the Hassler, 104, 105 ; of the
North Atlantic Bed, 126; of the St. Lawrence River, 139; Gaspe, 275; of
Vineyard Sound, 140 ; New Jersey Coast, 276 ; in Florida, 277 ; of the Yacht
Noma, 273 ; Waters of the Lakes, 141 -, Gulf of Mexico, 274.

The Arctic Regions : Payer and Weyprecht, 119, 120 ; Rosenthal, 118 ;
Russian Geographical Society, 107, 117; Greenland, 123, 124, 125; Nova
Zembla, 122; Spitzbergen, 117, Kara Sea, 116, White Sea, 121. The Ant-
arctic Regions, 109.

North America : Alaska, Yukon, Raymond, 138 ; Rocky Mountains,
Hayden, 130, 136 ; Marsh, 131 ; Colorado, Powell, 132 ; Yellowstone, Lang-
ford, 134; Hayden, 136; California, King, 137 ; Kansas, Cope, 133. Middle
America: West Indies, 141. South America, 142, 143; Darien Canal,
143 ; Peru, 145 , Brazil, Hartt, 147 ; Demerara, 148.

Polynesia Marshall Islands, 108 ; Aurora and Sunday Islands, 109.
Asia, 117, 127; Madagascar, 128. Africa, Bayne, 130; Schweinfurth, 130.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY 149

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY.
Microscopy : Diatoms, 227 ,' Coccoliths, 229 ; Bacteria and Fungi, 269 ;
Organic Forms in the Air, 269. Origin of Life, 153, 160, 162, 253. Dar-
winism or Evolution, 153, 156 ; Natural Selection, 219 ; Natural History
Collections of Darwin, 272.

Scientific Explorations : Gulf of Suez, 274 ; Gidf of Naples, 274 ; Ger-
man Ocean, 275 ; Noma, 273 ; Gulf Stream, 276 ; Gaspe, 275 ; New Jersey
Coast, 276 ; Vineyard Sound, Buzzard's Bay, 140 ; Florida Coast, 277. See
also Geography ; Explorations.

GENERAL ZOOLOGY.

Animal Mechanics, 153 ; Mind in the lower Animals, 174 ; Preservatives
of decayed Flesh, 529 ; Injuries to Telegraph Cables by Animals, 271, 272.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The Nervous System : Theory of Nervous Action, 173 ; a Nervous Ether,
232 ; Rate of Mental Transmission, 174 ; the Brain, Relation to the Spinal
Marrow, 164 ; Difference of Brain in Animals, 240 ; Extirpation of the
Brain of a Frog, 204.

Vlii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

The Bones: Strontian in, 164; Permanence of, 165; Composition in Par-
alytics, 187; Eighth Rib in Man, 171 ; Platvonemic Skeleton, 242 ; Skull
of Hindoos, 245 ; Work on Osteology, by Prof. Flower, 214.

The Muscles: of Mollusca, 244. The Skin: Skin-grafting, 172. Tike
Blood: Coagulated, 171; Difference in Paces, 172. Parasites: Entozoa,
Delhi Boil, 171; of the Cattle Plague, 232. Poisons : Serpent-bites and
Remedies, Ilalford's Cure, 175, 176; Curare, 237; Mboundou, 177; of the
Scorpion, 177 (see Therapeutics). Diseases (see also Therapeutics) : Small-
pox among the Indians, 240 ; Fish, Fungus growth On, 267. Influence of
Physical Agents: Heat, 234, Cold, 237; Variation of Pressure, 235, 236 ;
Change of Medium in Fish, 265, in Crustacea, 226 ; Phosphorus, 239.
Food. Bread Diet, 169; Elimination of Nitrogen, 170.

FAUNAS.
Australia, 149; New Zealand, 152; Azores, 149; Scotland, 189 ; East Flor-
ida, 271; West Coast of America, 152 ; Faunal Provinces, 150.

VERTEBRATES IN GENERAL.

New Fossils, 247 ; Fossil in Ohio, 252 , in Kansas, 133 ; Port Kennedy Bone
Cave, 249 ; Game-trade of Chicago, 254.

MAMMALS.
Man. Culture and Habits : Cannibalism in Europe, 160 ; Origin of Civiliza-
tion, 164 ; Alcoholism, 169 ; Use of the Right Hand, 238 ; Food: Bread Diet,
169 ; Climate, Effect of, on Man, 167, 168 ; Disease and Monstrosities: Hered-
itary Deformities, 163 ; from Atmospheric Germs, 161 ; Small-pox among
the Indians, 240 ; Iielation to other A nimals, 243 ; to the Gibbons, 245 ;
Mental Condition .* Transmissibility of Qualities, 183 ; Fossil Man, 178 ; in
the Tertiary Period, 180; Prehistoric Man and Ancient Man, Lake-dwell-
ers, 181 ; Cave-dwellers. 183, 242 ; Skeletons in, 242 ; Sepulture, 242 ; Shell-
heaps in New Brunswick, 182 ; Rock Inscriptions, Mode of Copying, 239 ;
made by Bushmen, 241 ; in New Mexico, 241 ; in Peru, 243 ; in the Black
Sea, 127 ; Modern Man :' Gay Head Indians, 240.

Other Mammals : General, 133, 188 ; Fossil, 189, 247, 248, 251, 252 ; Cat,
Antiquity of the, 185 ; Antiquity of the Pig, 184 ; the Mole, 187 ; the Hip-
popotamus, 187 ; the Rhinoceros, 187 ; the Tapir, 278; the Horse, 186 , the
Mastodon, 248 ; the Elephant, 253, 254 ; the Rat, 185 ; the Walrus, 247 ; the
Whale, 185, 255 ; the Marsupials, 188.

BIRDS.
General : Birds of Scotland, 189; of East Florida, 271 ; Variation of Color
in, 190 ; Transporting living, 286 ; Trade in, 257 ; Difference of Sex in Eggs,
I'.M ; Size of Chick, 192; Oil from Petrels, 191; Pelican Oil, 466; Flight
of Birds, 194.

Special- Ostrich, 192. 193. 191; Moa, 197, 198; Touraco, 196; Turkey,
261 , Dodo Pigeon, 192 ; Gulls, 196 ; Parrot, 257 ; Great Auk, 258.

REPTILES.

Alligators, 199,259; Homed Toad, 198; ^^osasaur^^s, 200 ; Fossil Saurians,
2(0; Pterodactyl, 199; Serpents, Poison of, 175, 176, 255; Poisonous, in
America, 201 , in India, 201, 203; in the West Indies, 202; in Australia,
^2 Turtles, 203 ; Turtles and the Florida Cable, 271.

AMPHIBIANS.

New Suboldia, 205 : Frogs in New Zealand, 203.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. i x

FISHES.

General: Confusion of Names, 205 ; Phosphorescence when Dead, 211; Re-
lationships, 261 ; Pectoral Fins, 261 ; Fishes of the British Museum, 206 ; of
Cuba, 211 ; of Algeria, 211 ; Change from Fresh Water to Salt, 265; Fossil,
in Wyoming, 248, New Jersey, 248 ; Killing, with Torpedoes, 267 ; Fun-
gus growth on, 267. Fish Culture : Stocking Rivers, 205, 265, 266 ; Food
of young Trout, 217, 350. Fisheries : Exposition at Naples, 347 ; Steam
in, 348 ; of Connecticut, 349.

Special : Herring, Spawning of, 207 ; Food of, 208 ; Codfish, Tame, 212 ;
Stones in the Stomach of, 213 ; in Alaska, 259. Salmon, Kelts, 215 ; in Loch
Tay, 215 ; Land-locked, 216 ; in the British Provinces, 260 ; in the Hudson,
264; Salmon-fly, 263. Trout, Tailless, 217; Food of young, 217,350.
Sturgeon, 213. Lamprey, 213. Ganoid, 214. Gourami, 214. New Lophi-
oid, 214. Bluefish, 278. Pompano, 260. Horse-mackerel, 263. Black
- Bass, 264. Eyeless Fish, 266.

INVERTEBRATES IN GENERAL.

Fossil, 223 ; Injected with Silica, 225.

MOLLUSKS.

New Brachiopod, 223 ; European, 224 ; Color of Shells, 224 ; Muscular Fibre,
224 ; of Gulf of Suez, 274-; of Gaspe, 275 ; Oyster-fisheries in Germany, 270 ;
Enemies of Spat, 270.

INSECTS.
Of Madeira, 218; in Salt Water, 269 ; in Hailstones, 217; Selection for Food
by Birds, 219; Fungus growth on, 221, 223 ; new Parasite of the Elephant,
221; Reduvius, 222; Cockroach, 222; Phylloxera, 222; White Ant, 269;
Cabbage Butterfly, 270.

ARACHNIDS.

Bites of Scorpions, 177.

CRUSTACEANS.

Changing from Salt Water to Fresh, 226 ; from the Gulf Stream, 276 ; new
Fossil, 228 ; Climbing Trees, 229 ; Feet of Trilobite, 228.

RADIATES.
Rare Species, 225.

PROTOZOA.

Pelobius, a new Rhizopod, 230.

H. BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE 279

BOTANY.

General : Effect of Trees on Climate-, 279 ; Spontaneous Forest Fires, 280 ;
Origin of Coal, 286 ; Drying Flowers, 293 ; Flowering of Plants, 311 ; Petri-
fied Forest in California, 102.

Vegetable Physiology : Action of Light on Tissues, 290 ; of Heat and
Cold, 291, 297, 298 ; of Electricity, 296 ; of Illuminating Gas, 292 ; Circula-
tion of Plants, 291 ; Movements of Chlorophyl Grains, 295 ; Transpiration
of Leaves, 289, 295 ; Autumnal Change of the Color of Foliage, 294, 307 ;
Artificial Change of the Color of Flowers, 290, 296 ; Generation of Heat by
Fungi, 290 ; Growth in Solutions, 298 ; Lime in Water Plants. 312.

Poisonous Plants: Manzanilla, 289. Diseases : Blight. 287, Coffee-

A 2

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

tree Disease, 287 : Action of < ta, 292 : of Potato, 821 ; of Grape-vine, 353.
Constituents of Plants: Manganese in Acorns, 288; Nitrogen in Mul-
berry Leaves, 288.

Special Botany : Ailanthus, 281 ; Cinchona in Jamaica, 282, 310, in Java,
281, in Algiers. 282; European Plane-tree, 283; Horse-chestnut, 283; Eu-
calyptus, 311 ; Milk-tree, 283 ; Fodder Plants, 283 ; Andromeda, Carbolic
Acid in, 284; Rhodea, Fertilization of, 294; Maize, Origin of, 285; Elodea,
or "Water Pest," Uses of, 285; Silphium, or Compass-plant, 285 ; Clearing
Bean of India, 309 ; Sea Grasses (Zoster a), 311 ; Manzanilla, 289 ; Orange
Fungus of Bread, 286 ; Mushrooms, 301 ; Fucus Serratus, 287.

HORTICULTURE.

General : Gardens in Algiers, 305 ; Tropical, in England, 306 ; Preservation
of Fruit, 302; of Grapes, 304, 305 ; Forest Tree-planting on Prairies, 279;
Effect of Trees on Climate, 279 ; Labels for Plants, 293.

Kitchen and Fruit Garden : Raising early Vegetables, 301 ; Asparagus,
302 ; Mushrooms, 301 ; Grape-vines by Eyes, 303 ; Rearing in Pots, 304,
353 ; Fruit-trees, 302 ; Preservation of Fruit, 302 ; of Grapes, 304, 305 ; the
Potato, 318, 319, 320, 321 \ Radish, 324.

Diseases of Plants. See under Botany.

I. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY 313

THE SOIL.

Plowing, 313 ; Draining with Fascines, 314 ; AUios of France, 329 ; Constit-
uents of the Soil, 340, 341 ; Peat, 340.

MANURES.
Animal : From dead Animals, 322 ; Fish, 322, 342 ; Guano, 339, 342. Veg-
etable : Corn, 325 ; Leached Ashes, 342. Mineral : Sand Compost, 325 ;
Phosphates, 326 ; Sulphate of Manganese, 327 ; Carbonate of Potash, 322,
323 ; Effect on Plants, 323.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS,
Food of: Beet Leaves, 316; Grain for Hogs, 325; Poultry, 332, 333; Fish,
350 ; Preparation of Fodder, 335 ; Effect of, on Milk, 337. Fattening, 330.
Products of: Eggs, 333; Milk, 336; Butter, 343; Wool (washing), 338,
845; Silk, 320. Diseases and Treatment: Use of Carbolic Acid, 339.
Physiology, 344, 346. Management : Brooded Eggs, 332 ; Laying of Eggs,
338; Silkworm, 320.

Particular Kinds : the Horse, Charlier Shoe for, 314; Cattle, 335; Goat,
347 ; Poultry, 332, 333 ; Fish, Nutrition of the young, 350 ; Oj-sters, 352.

NOXIOUS ANIMALS.

Rabbits 332 ; Crows, 332 ; Insects, 313, 331, 382, 383.

PLANTS.
Timber: Time to Cut, 315, 340; Seasoning, 315 ; Effect of Battles on, 314 ;
Application of Arsenic, 324 ; Trees and Forests (see Botany and Horti-
cult urc ). Food Plants: Potato, its Ash, 318; Feeding to Horses, 319;
Utilization of, 319; new Varieties, 320; Test of Value, 320; Diseases, 321 ;
the Mushroom, 301 ; the Radish, 321 ; the Vine-disease, 353. Oil Plants :
Sunflower, 316; Ground-nut, 317. Fibrous Plant: Ramie, 318. Dye:
Madder. 317.

TABLE OF CONTEXTS. x i

J. HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY 355

BUILDING MATERIALS.
See Mechanics and Engineering.

HOUSE AND FURNITURE.
Cleaning Marble, 376 ; Tightening Curtain Cord, 384 ; Fire-proofing Wood,
376; Embossing Wood, 452; Mirrors, 509, 531 ; Soluble Glass for Floors,
383 ; Insertion of Screws in Wood, 383 ; Paste for Wall-paper, 384 ; White-
washing, 375. Cements ; Glue ; Paste, etc., see Technology.

LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION.

Making Fires in India, 386 ; Gas Stove for Cooking, 372 ; Fastening Can-
dles in Sockets, 381 ; Corn-cobs as Fuel, 388.

THE LAUNDRY.

Washing and Ironing Machines, 374 ; Washing Powders, 477 ; Purification
of Water, 374 ; Removal of Stains and Spots, 377, 378, 379, 388 ; Bleaching,
378 ; Soap, 385, for Wool, 477 ; Metallic Soap, 478.

FOOD.

Preservatives : Ice, Natural and Artificial, 355, 358 ; Aseptin, 359 ; Car-
bolic Acid, 359 ; Bisulphite of Lime, 387. Animal. Meats : Concentrated,
369 ; Preserving in Cans, 356 ; Pelouze Process, 358 ; Meat Extracts in
Java, 357 ; Meat of diseased Cattle, 358. Soups : Soup Tablets, 360 ; Tapi-
oca Beef Bouillon, 360. Fish: Keeping Salmon fresh, 356 ; Importance of
killing for Food, 387. Milk: Shipping of, 361. Butter: Keeping, 361;
Coloring for, 362. Eggs : Preservation of, 362 ; Oil from, 362.

Vegetable. Flour: Keeping in Barrels, 362. Bread: as Diet, 363;
French preserved, 364. Wine: Coloring Matter of, 364. Beer: Preserva-
tion of, 364 ; Restoring sour, 365 ; from Rice, 366 ; Cleaning Bottles, 366 ;
Tannin in, 366. Vinegar : Pasteur Process, 367; from Unripe Fruit, 368;
Greening Pickles, 368. Sugar: Cutting Machine, 372 ; see also Technology.
Vegetables: Desiccated, 370. Fruits: Preserving Lemons, 369; Preserves,
370; Theory of, 370; Sirups, 371.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Preserving Corks against Acids, 384. Court-plaster, 384. Bird-lime, 385.
Skinning Animals, 386. Air-cushion for the Feet in Traveling, 386. Oint-
ment for Gun-barrels, 380. Imitation Cigar-boxes, 381. Improved Envel-
opes, 381. Labels for Plants, 382. Extirpation of Vermin ; Cockroaches,
382; White Ants, 383. Petroleum for Dry Rot, 374. Salt for preserving
Wood, 420.

K MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING 389

GENERAL.

Least Action in Nature, 389 ; Rhysimetre, 389 , Wooden Water-pipes, 424.

CONSTRUCTIVE MATERIALS.

Natural Stone : Blackening, 410 , Protecting by Salts of Copper, 420 ; Hy-
drate of Silica, 411. Artificial Stone : Coignet Concrete, 401 ; Victoria
Stone, 405, 407; Apoenite, 407 ; Iron Slag, 408, 462 ; Artificial Porphyry, 409
Dinas Stone (fire-proof), 421. Cement and Mortar : Sorel Cement, 402
Portland Cement, 407 ; Hard Cement, 407 ; from Furnace Slag, 408, 410, 462
Scott's Mortar, 403, 421 ; Improved Mortar, 405 : for damp Places, 462 : Fire

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

proof Composition. 523. Iron: Forging large Masses, 301 , Improved Man-
ufacture, 892; Rusting of, Cause, 302, Prevention, 391 ; Effect of Cold on,
894; Bessemer and Beaton Steel, 890; Siemens's, 390 ; Restoring burnt
Steel, 390. Zinc: for Roofing, 395* Wood : Preserving by Salt, 420 ; Pro-
tection against Dry Pot, 374.

CONSTRUCTIONS.
Masonry : Dampness in Walls, 400, in Tunnels, 401 ; Rendering Walls
Water-tight, 408. Paving : with Asphalt, 408.

Canals : Ship Canal across Cape Cod, 422 ; across New Jersey, 423 ; the
Isthmus of Darien, 143. Ships : Inglefield's Steering Apparatus, 418 ; Coat-
ing for Bottoms, 4G3. Tides : Flux Motor, 418.

MOTORS.
Steam Engines : Jackets for Boilers, 398 ; Deposits in Boilers, 398. Am-
monia Engines, 531. Railways : Single Rail, 396 ; Narrow Gauge, 39G ;
Rolling of Axles, 393 ; Testing of Axles, 393 ; Heating Cars, 395, 512 ; Lo-
comotive Brake, 397. Signals : Color for, 417 ; Intermittent Light, 52G ;
Holmes's Signal Light, 527. Coal : Spontaneous Combustion, 399 ; "Weath-
ering, 399 ; Burning Dust, 401.

EXPLOSIVES.

Gunpowder: For killing Whales, 411; New kind, 413; Comparison with
Steam, 41C Dynamite and Dualin, 415 ; Dynamite and Gun-cotton, 415 ;
in Well-boring, 415. Gun-cotton: Compressed, 41G ; Explosion of, 420 ;
Rendering Non-explosive, G9. Lithofracteur, 419. Pertuiset Powder, 419.
Torpedoes, 447. Explosive Balloons, 419. Triangular Holes for Blast-
ing, 422.

L. TECHNOLOGY 425

THE LIBERAL ARTS.

Printing. Paper: Pearl-hardener, 481; Perforating Machinery, 493;
Wood-pulp, 482, 484 ; from Oat refuse, 488 ; Wetting for Press, 487 ; Parch-
ment, 488. Ink : Red or Violet Fuchsine Varnish, 489 ; Drying, 493 ; Print-
ing on Tin, 493; Stamping Ink, 530. Type: Steel, 494. Writing, Draw-
ing, and Copying : Ink, 495 ; Removal of Blotches, 495 ; Secret Ink, 49G ;
Fixing Crayons, 497; Copying Drawings, 499 ; Pictures, 497. Engraving
and Carving : by Sand Blast, 454 ; Action of hot Glass on Diamond, 455.
Modeling and Casting: Gabbro Mass, 457; Mixing Alkaline Salts with
( rypsum, 155 ; improved Mode of Casting, 455. Photographing : on Wood
for Engraving, 49G ; Copying Pictures by Collodion, 497 ; Copying Draw-
ings, 499 ; Glass for, 498 ; Tapioca Paper for, 498 ; Restoring faded Prints,
503; Albert type Process, 500; Woodbury, 501.

THE HOUSEHOLD.
Sec Household Economy.

CLOTHING AND WEARING APPAREL.

Water-proofing : Starch, 478 ; Chinese Composition, 479 ; for Clothing,
17'.; fur Cloth, 480; Hydrofugine, 517. Fire-proofing, 375; Antiflamine?
480; Solution for, 523. Weaving : Improved Loom, 425; Smith's Loom,
426; Wearing Stockings, 426. Sizing: for Cotton Yarn, 441 ; Cheap, 441;
Substances nsed in, 460. Starch : Potato. 434; Rice, 442; Water-proof.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. x iH

478. A Ibumen : Preserved by Arsenica^ Acid, 433 ; Removal of dried, 434 ;
Lactarin a Substitute for, 435 , from Blood, 451 ; from Fish Eggs, 520 ; Al-
bumen Charcoal, 489. Gum : Dextrine and Gum Arabic, 457 ; Tragacanth,
460 ; Prevention of Mould, 461.

Dyeing and Coloring Materials : Aniline, Adulteration with Coal,
427 ; with Sugar, 440 ; and Nickel, 516 ; Aniline Black, 520 ; Fluor-aniline,
524; Aniline, Bronze, 437 ; Fuchsine, Adulteration of, 517; Madder, 317;
Alizarine, 434, 516 ; Gallein, 438 ; Carmine Purple, 428 ; African Red, 437 ;
Saffranin, 436 ; Yellow, for Soap, 517 ; Zinc, Green, 515 ; Indigo : Treat-
ment of, 429; Solvent for, 437; Testing the Purity of, 445; Dyeing with,
445 ; Indigotine, 428 ; Ultramarine, 429 ; Tungsten Blue, 433 ; Blue Bronze,
437 ; Molybdenum Blue, 437 ; Coerulin, 438 ; Prussian Blue, 442 ; Barytes
"White, 450; Fuscin, 515; Aniline Black, 520. Miscellaneous: Ink-plant
of New Grenada, 379 , Colors from Wild Plants, 380.

Dyeing and Coloring Processes : Nature's Colors, 443 ; Aniline on Cotton,
439, 440 ; on Wool, 449 ; Japanese Silks, 443 ; Yellow on Marble, 444 ; on
Soap, 517 ; Artificial Flowers, 517 ; "Walnut, on Wood, 529 ; Imitation of
Mahogany, 530 , Cements, 533 ; Bronzing Copper, 446 ; Wood, 452 ; Black-
ening Copper, 447 ; Using Brass Kettles, 451.

Bleaching : Extraction of Aniline Colors, 430 , Bleaching Straw, 448.
Cleaning. See Household Economy : Laundry. Drying : Woolens, 427.

Fabrics : Speckled Fabrics, 446 ; Grege Yarn, 480 ; Water-proofing (see
above); Fire-proofing (see above). Materials: Wool, Dyeing Aniline
Blue, 449; Soap for Cleaning, 476; Utilizing Grease from, 477; Removing
Grease from, 477; Adulteration of. 482. Silk, Adulteration of, 481, 516.
Opossum Skins for Gloves, 373.

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.
Animal. Skins and Leather: Preparation of Hides, 528; Skin of Opos-
sum, 373 ; Utilizing Scraps of Leather, 373, 487 ; largest Band, 506 ; Arti-
ficial Shagreen, 507; Copying the Grain of Leather, 507; Greasing Leather,
528. Wool. See Materials of Clothing. Silk: Adulteration of, 481,516.
Glue. Gelatine : Improved Process of Making, 521 ; Tungstic, 458 ;
Gilders', 460 , Water-proof, 461 ; for fastening Parchment Paper, 461 ; Gel-
atine from Bones, 460. Horn: Blackening, 449. Oil- Bird, 468; Whale,
525.

Vegetable. Rubber : Imitation of, 460, 464 ; Carbolic Acid for Hose,
508 ; Utilizing old, 52o.Gitms : Gnm Arabic and Dextrine, 457 ; Traga-
canth, 460 ; Prevention of Mould, 461. Spirits : Preservation of Wine by
Tannin, 505 ; of Beer, 364 : Alcohol, Acidification of, by Lycopodium, 489 ;
from Lichens, 504; Filtering, 505. Oils, etc. : Olive, 469; Fusel, 528; Tur-
pentine, 468 ; Theory of Boiled, 472. Sugar : Extracting Juice from the
Cane, 490, 491 ; Diffusive Process, 490 ; Analysis of Sirups, 491 ; Refining,
492. Wood: Bleaching, 448; Bronzing, 452. Straio : Bleaching, 448.
Ebony from Sea-weed, 463 ; Colors from Wild Plants, 380. Fibres : Ramie,
318, 482 ; Prize for Rhea Machine, 487 ; Apocynum, 483 ; New Zealand
Flax, 483; Baobab Barl*, 482 ; Cotton, utilizing, 486 ; Tension of, 486 ; Wood
Pidp, 482, 484, 485 ; Cattell's Method of Preparing, 484.

Mineral. Metals : Preserving polished Surfaces, 453 ; Polishing Pow-
der, 454 ; Enameled Iron Slates, 457. Glass : Engraving by Sand Blast,

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

454; Action when Hot on^Diamond, 455 ; Polishing, 523. Stone, Iron, etc.
See Constructing Materials; Mechanics; Engineering. Petroleum: Deo-
dorizing. 169; Rectifying, 171 ; Benzole, 524. Ice: Artificial Freezing Mix-
tures, 509, 513 ; Tosselli Machine. 518; Cost of, 514. Carbonic Acid Gas:
Purifying, 525.

Mixed and Miscellaneous. Oils: Lubricating, 4G7. Fats: Extraction
of, 474. Paraffine : Refining, 474. A dhesives : Uniting Metals, 458 ; Rub-
ber to Metal or Wood, 459 ; Cement for Bottle-corks, 4G0 ; Tenacious, 534 ;
Glycerine, 534; to resist Sulphuric Acid, 534; from Soluble Glass, 533.
Glue. See Animal Products. Varnishes and Lacquers: Tar Varnish, 4G8 ;
Transparent Green, 473 ; Lacquering, 4G7; French Silver Lac, 525. Paints :
White Lead, 464 j from Galena, 472 ; Zinc, 470, 471 ; Zinc Water, 471 ; So-
luble Glass for, 472; Cleaning, 470. Carbolic Acid: in Paste, 570; in Tan-
ning, 50G ; in Rubber Hose, 508 ; Antidote to, 525 ; Deodorizing, 525. Bi-
chromate of Potash : Rise in Price, 518 ; Substitute for, 519.

Utilizing waste Products : Cotton Seed, 485 ; Cotton Fibre, 48G ; Leather
Scraps, 487 ; old Rubber, 525. Adulterations : of Silk by other Fabrics,
481,516; of Paper, 481, 482; of Wool, 482; of Wine, 489; of Colors, 427, 440,
517 ; Imitation of Human Hair, 374. Antiseptics : Carbolic Acid in Paste.
570 ; in Tanning, 50G ; in Rubber Hose, 508 ; for decayed Flesh, 529.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES.

Weighing : Duckham's Self-indicator, 465. Cleaning : Lacquer from Iron,
467 ; Paint, 470. Preserving t Plaster against Vinegar Fumes, 460 ; Ships'
Bottoms^ 463. Painting. See Paints, Varnishes, etc.; Blackening Copper,
447. Bronzing : Copper, 446 ; Wood, 452. Tanning s Carbolic Acid in,
506 ; Carbonic Acid in, 506. Lighting and Heating : Objections to the
Use of Oxygen in, 510 ; Zinc Ethyl, 511 ; Carbo-oxygen Lamp, 511 ; Phos-
phorus Matches, 514. Grinding and Polishing : Artificial Grindstones,
533. Plating, Smelting, and Reducing. See Metallurgy. Miscellane-
ous. Hydro-extractor, 504; Infusible Crucibles, 454 ; Enameling Slates
with Iron, 457 ; new Enamel, 458.

M. MATERIA MEDICA, THERAPEUTICS, AND HYGIENE 535

MATERIA MEDICA.
Glyconin, 552. Cod-liver Oil : removing Taste from, 556 ; Butter from, 559 ;
with Chloral Hydrate, 565. Phosphate of Lime, 557. Permanganate of
Potash, 588, 589. Glycerine, 558. Cundurango, 579, 595, 596. Carbolic
Acid : for Wounds, 572 ; in Snake Poisonings, 573 ; Paper, 571 ; Antidote
to, 564. Chloral Hydrate : with Cod-liver Oil, 565 ; Mode of Administer-
ing, 567 ; in Sea-sickness, 567. Metachloral, 567. Hydramyle, 566. Chlo-
ride of .Ethylide, 566. Chloromethyl, 566. Buhsa, 568. Apomorphia, 568.
Pepsin, Liebreich's, 574. Codeia, 576. Bromide of Potassium, Action of,
575 ; Poisonous Qualities of, 576. Coffee, 549. Quinine, Action of, 585.
Eucalyptus, 586, 589. Aconite, 590. Meat Extracts, 594; Carmine in, 593.

THERAPEUTICS.

Nervous System: Somnambulism. 555; new Affection, 556; Sun-stroke,
566; St.Vitus's Dance, 558; Hysteria, 556 ; Sea-sickness, 557. Catarrh :
Permanganate of Potash for, 559, 588. Croup : Glycerine for, 558. Small-

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xv

pox: Treatment, 581,583; in England, 582; in Africans, 582 ; Re vaccina-
tion, 581. Cholera, 584. Flatulency, 590. Fever : Eucalyptus a Rem-
edy for, 586, 589 ; Elimination of Nitrogen, 589 ; Scarlet Fever, 580. Anaes-
thetics : Hydramyl, 566 ; Chloride of iEthylide, 566 ; Chloromethyl, 566.
Emetics : Apomorphia, 568. Antidotes : Bone Black, 563 ; Carbolic Acid,
564; Phosphorus, 564. Hypodermic Injection: Ammonia Injection for
Chloroform Poison, 560. Poisons : Animal Emanations, 562 ; Charcoal
Fumes, 562 ; Coloring Matters, 561, 565 ; Serpent-bite, 573. 577; Acorns for
Cattle, 564 ; Calomel for Mice, 564 ; Vegetable Oils, 565. Drowning, 550.
Miscellaneous : Freckles, 553 ; Tattoo Marks, 607 ; Hair Disease, 554 ;
Bone-felon, 555 ; "Wax in the Ear, 551 ; Styptic Cotton, 551 ; Styptic Paper,
551 ; Lead-foil for Wounds, 552 ; Acupuncture of the Aorta, 552.

HYGIENE.

Water: Keeping Sweet by Iron, 535; Freeing from Gypsum, 536; Hard
versus Soft, 537, 538 ; Corrosion of Lead-pipes, 561 ; Tyndall on Purity of,
537; Fungi in, 537. Gases : Waste of Furnaces, 539 ; Consumption of
Noxious, 539. Dust : Inhalation by Workmen, 540 ; as a Ferment, 540 ;
TyndalTs Respirators. 541 ; Watering Streets with Saline Solutions, 546.
Germs : Fungi in Drinking-water, 535 ; Temperature needed to kill, 545 ;
Bacteria and Fungi, 268; Atmospheric Germs, Theory of, 161; Tyndall on,
542, 544. Sewage, 535 ; Lieurnur Method of, 587 ; Utilization of, 588.
Food : Wheat versus Flour, 547 ; Proper Ration of, 594 ; Buttermilk for
Infants, 594. Ventilation : of Rooms, 542 ; by Musquito Curtains, 543.
Antiseptics : different Kinds, 570 ; Carbolic Acid : in Tanning, 571 ; for
Wounds, 572 ; not perfect, 573 ; Carbolic Acid Paper, 571 ; Chloralum, 569,
570. Deodorizers: Spongy Iron, 551. Adulterations: of Milk, 548.
Miscellaneous: Effect on Health of Sewing-machine, 555, 558; Proper
Colors for Candies, 501 ; Geology and Hygiene, 546 ; Cruelty to Animals :
Pegging Lobsters' Claws, 553.

N. MISCELLANEOUS , 597

Institutions, etc. : Geneva : Natural History Society, 597 ; London : Brit-
ish Museum, new Site for the, 600 ; new Buildings, 600 ; Crystal Palace
Aquarium, 609 ; Royal Society : Wollaston Medal, 603 ; Science and the
British Government, 602 ; Chicago Academy of Sciences, Destruction of
the, 609 ; Vermont : Archives of Science, 604. Individuals : Copernicus,
Celebration of the Birth-day of, 608; Deaths. See Necrology, page 611;
Visit to the United States of Gwyn Jeffreys, 608. Miscellaneous : Inter-
national Exchanges, 607 ; Scientific Inactivity in England, 606 ; Psychic
Force, 603, 608, 610; Disasters to Whalers, 604; Fishery Commissioners,
605, 606 ; Increased Explosiveness of Bodies, 599 ; Units of Force and En-
ergy, 599.

O. NECROLOGY 611

P. INDEX TO THE REFERENCES 614

ALPHABETICAL INDEX 617

GENERAL SUMMARY

OF

SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR

THE YEAR 1871.

The year that has closed lias not been remarkably fruit-
ful in the way of great discoveries in science, although much
progress has been made in filling out the gaps in our knowl-
edge of many subjects. "VVe propose here to take up the
several departments in succession, and to indicate as briefly
as possible what appears to be most worthy of note, especially
so far as the United States is concerned.

The most interesting among the researches in Astronomy
during the year have been those devoted to comets and the
corona. The successful observation of four total eclipses in
as many consecutive years is something without precedent
in the history of Astronomy. The first eclipse, that of 1868,
showed that the protuberances were composed mainly of hy-
drogen gas. The eclipse observed in this country in 1869
showed that the corona was at least in great part gaseous,
but did not indicate that the gas was identical with any
known terrestrial substance. Owing to the unfavorable
weather which extended over the whole line of the eclipse of
1870 in the Mediterranean, little more was done on the coro-
na than to confirm this discovery, and to show that the now
celebrated " green line," by which the gas was indicated, ex-
tended to a distance of fifteen or twenty minutes from the
sun more than half the diameter of the latter. Perhaps the
most important discovery made during this eclipse was one
by Professor C. A.Young, who observed in Spain. At the in-
stant of commencement of totality he saw all the dark lines
of the fading spectrum he had been watching suddenly re-
versed, so as to show bright on a dark ground. This appear-
ance lasted only one or two seconds. The conclusion drawn
from this appearance is that the entire surface of the sun is
covered with a thin layer or glowing atmosphere composed
of the vapors of all the substances known to exist in the sun.

Will

GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The accounts of the recent Indian eclipse (December 11,
1871) arc as yet very meagre, and do not indicate that any
thing has been done beyond confirming the former discover-
Ii is said that the spectroscope has indicated the exist-
ence of water at a great height above the sun, but this was
done by Professor Winlock, in Spain, in 1870. It is also said
that the reversal of the bright lines seen by Professor Young
has been confirmed.

Intimately connected with the question of the- corona and
protuberances is that of the temperature of the sun, to which
an impulse has been given by the researches of Pere Secchi.
Starting from the observed rise of temperature produced by
the solar rays, this eminent physicist computed that the tem-
perature of the incandescent surface of the sun could not be
less than 10,000,000 degrees ! The French physicists, start-
ing from the very same data, find a temperature of only a
Jew thousand degrees no higher, in fact, than what can be
produced by artificial means at the surface ofthe earth. The
difference arises from the difference of the supposed law of
increase of radiation with the temperature. Pere Secchi sup-
poses the radiation to be exactly proportional to the temper-
ature, an hypothesis contradicted by experiment; while the
French start from the law of Dulong and Petit, which is
founded on actual observations. They have, therefore, the
best of the argument.

The return of two periodic comets, those of Encke and Tut-
tlc, <luring the year, has led to a complete confirmation of the
observations made in previous years with the spectroscope
on other comets, namely, that these bodies give a spectrum
of bright lines, like glowing gas, and very closely resembling
that of defiant gas. But no one has yet explained how a red-
hot gas can move through the planetary spaces without either
cooling off or expanding indefinitely by its own elastic force,
so that, in fact, this discovery has left the exact nature of
comets a greater mystery than ever. The spectroscope has
also revealed atmospheres of great absorbing power around
tin' planets Uranus and Neptune. It is not found possible to
identify them with any known terrestrial substance, but it
ins not unlikely that carbonic acid is an important con-
stituent.

There is now some prospect that American astronomers

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. x ix

will take a prominent part in the observations of the transit
of Venus which is to take place in 18*74. In the winter of
1871 Congress authorized the formation of a commission to
make the necessary arrangements, and expend any money
that might be appropriated for this purpose. This commis-
sion consists of Admiral Sands and Professors Peirce, Henry,
Newcomb, and Harkness. It only remains for Congress to
furnish the requisite means for organizing the expeditions.

Meteorology, in its practical bearings, has been greatly ad-
vanced in the New World by the operations of the United
States Signal Corps, under General Myer, this branch of the
public service not limiting itself, as heretofore, to the collect-
ing and reporting information by telegraph of the condition
and changes of atmospheric phenomena in different parts
of the country, but now furnishing, in addition, forecasts of
the weather, which are intended to indicate the probabilities
for the coming twenty-four hours. These predictions have
proved to be singularly accurate, and are now greatly relied
Upon by all classes of the community for influencing the op-
erations of the day. The announcements are made by tele-
graph to all parts of the country, and when any severe storm
is anticipated, the fact is published by means of signals over
the greater part of the sea-coast and lakes of the country.
The operations of the same corps on the summit of Mount
Washington during the past winter have tended to throw a
great deal of light upon the condition and movements of the
higher currents of air.

The Smithsonian Institution and the Medical Department
of the United States Army have prosecuted their systems of
meteorological observations during the year, the former also
distributing a large number of rain-gauges, and the latter con-
tinuing to improve the character of the instruments.

The climatological condition of America during the year
has exhibited certain marked peculiarities ; among others,
unusual prevalence of rain during the spring and summer on
the west coast of South America, a region previously almost
unacquainted with this phenomenon, and of deep snows in the
Pocky Mountains of the United States in the ensuing winter.

The government meteorological establishments of Europe
have also continued their system of operations, somewhat
on the plan of that of the United States, but on a much small-

xx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

er scale respectively, and have aided in obtaining accurate
generalizations in regard to the laws of meteorology. Among
these results may be mentioned a work by Mr. Lay upon the
law of the winds, which has excited much attention.

The science of Terrestrial Physics has been enriched by
the papers upon ocean currents by Dr. Carpenter, Mr. James
Croll, and others. The views of these gentlemen are, how-
ever, widely diverse in regard to the cause of this phenome-
non, Dr. Carpenter taking the ground that the currents both
of the Atlantic and of the Mediterranean are produced by a
difference in the specific gravity of the different parts of the
mass, while Mr. Croll believes that they result from the influ-
ence of the surface winds.

Pendulum experiments in India would seem to show that
the density of the earth at the surface diminishes as we pro-
ceed farther from the shore to the higher elevations of the
mountain ranges.

In the department of Electricity and Magnetism we have
communications upon the action of electricity upon gases
traversed by. electric currents; on the origin of celestial pos-
itive electricity by Becquerel, who maintains that this pro-
ceeds from the sun, which, being emitted through the solar
spots, and permeating all space, gives rise to such phenomena
as the aurora, etc.

As far as concerns Theoretical and Applied Chemistry , im-
portant modifications in chemical notation and nomenclature
have risen to vex chemists and trouble the declining years
of the pioneers of the science. It is the fashion to make sug-
gestions and introduce novelties in modern chemistry, and
there is great need of a master mind like Lavoisier or Berze-
lius to systematize the language, and once more bring order
out of chaos.

The time-saving element has entered here, and it is pro-
posed, in the naming of chemical compounds, where formerly
the adjective preceded the noun, to invent one word that
would express the sense; thus, instead of the " sulphate of
the protoxide of iron" or the " protosulphate of iron," it is
proposed to substitute the expression "ferrous sulphate;"
aixl where there are various oxygen compounds of an ele-
ment, to employ suitable Latin terms, as ferrous, ferric, cu-
prous, cupric, etc.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxi

In the writing of formula there is the same revolution, with
this difference, that the artistic element has been brought into
play, and a great variety of patterns now adorn our text-
books. Graphic formula were originally inserted for abbre-
viation and perspicuity ; they have now become voluminous,
and as unintelligible as' the ancient signs of the alchemist.
If we were to define the characteristic features of the present
state of chemical science we should undoubtedly say that it
was the general tendency to synthetic methods.

This condition of things is the natural outgrowth of the
discussions about atoms, molecules, types, and graphic form-
ula. The chemist imagined certain reactions, and in many
instances has had the happiness to see them confirmed. As
soon as the way was pointed out, and the first barriers bro-
ken, the rush of chemists to the new fields of research was
great, and at the present time how to create by synthesis oc-
cupies the majority of the leading investigators of the world.

Berzelius believed that chemical forces could not effect or-
ganic synthesis, and that when such changes occurred they
were due to the agency of vital force. This theory was ac-
cepted as correct, and synthetical chemistry was very little
studied ; we now find it overthrown, and even the fats have
been artificially prepared by Berthelot. Theoretical chem-
istry has therefore made great progress during the year, as
the number of workers has been more numerous than ever
before, and out of the theories advanced by chemists have
grown important practical applications. The whole subject
of bleaching, so happily founded by Berth ollet, has undergone
a great change. Instead of chlorine, oxygen is supposed to
do the work, and this renders it possible to introduce new
agents. Accordingly, we find the permanganate of potash,
a compound rich in oxygen, actually largely employed for
bleaching. Ozone also receives application for the same pur-
pose, and diligent search is made for a cheap method of its
preparation.

The natural corollary of bleaching is disinfecting, and here
we observe the introduction of several new agents, the per-
manganate of potash, ozone, carbolic acid, and several metal-
lic salts. In this connection we must not fail to mention the
increased attention bestowed upon dry earth as a powerful
fixative agent, and its introduction into closets out of sani-

xxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCDSNTIEIC AND

tary and economical considerations. Until recently a sub-
stance originally known as an incrustation upon the sands in
the vicinity of .the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and hence call-
ed 8al ammoniac , was the principal source of the small amount
of volatile alkali required in medicine and the arts. A great
change has recently taken place in the commercial value of
this article. Ammonia is now largely consumed in the arti-
ficial production of ice, as a motive power, as a fire extin-
guisher, as a fertilizer, and in numerous arts and industries.
Its enormous production from gas-house liquors, from the
spent vapors of the lagoons of Tuscany, from the residues of
the refinery of Chile saltpetre, from crude borax, and from vol-
canic incrustations, is one of the features of modern industry.

The study and practical application of the products derived
from the distillation of coal, wood, and petroleum is still pros-
ecuted with success, and so much literature has accumula-
ted in this branch of chemistry that a systematic and classi-
fied list is greatly to be desired. The aniline industry has
increased in proportion, and we have new artificial colors to
be added each year. Artificial alizarine would seem to be an
accomplished fact, and the only vegetable dye which remains
for the chemist to imitate is indigo. Carbolic acid, paraffine,
and glycerine are becoming familiar to every body, and their
uses have been greatly extended during the year.

We have not the space to enumerate all that has been dis-
covered in coal-tar and petroleum, and must content ourselves
with the above reference to this branch of industry.

In the working of ores and metals many changes have been
introduced, and metals which for their rarity and cost were
formerly classed among the luxuries, are now of common use,
and great aids to the comforts of civilization. Among these
we may count the common production and use of zinc ; the
increased production of aluminium and magnesium ; the
cheapening of iron and steel by the Bessemer process; the
free use of nickel for plating ; the appearance of manganese
upon the stage to be alloyed with copper, and the cheap man-
ufacture of sodium as compared with former prices. The
disintegration of lead ores by zinc has been developed and
applied within a recent period. In all metallurgical opera-
tions there has been hitherto a serious Avaste in the accumu-
lations of the flues and in the slags. Much of this loss is

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxiii

now done away with by a reconstruction of the chimney-
stacks, by modifications in the form of the furnace, and by
the use of the slags for many purposes. There have been
few instances of progress of more importance than the man-
agement of cinders and slags as now conducted in Europe.
What was formerly thrown away is now sold at a profit, and
a corresponding deduction in the cost of metals has been ef-
fected.

In the United States the manufacture of cryolite glass bids
fair to become of considerable importance. The material
made from cryolite is found to possess many advantages over
porcelain, especially for the use of the photographer, and the
demand for articles made according to the new process is
said to be greater than the supply. The use of albumen as
a substitute for blood in the refining of sugar is an improve-
ment worthy of note, and has occasioned an increased de-
mand for the raw material. Albumen is now extensively
made from blood, fish-roe and wild birds' eggs, and in Al-
satia hens' eggs are in great demand. The sugar refiner, the
photographer, and the aniline dyer consume unprecedented
quantities of albumen at the present time.

Nitro-glycerine has been modified in its physical form by
the introduction of the explosives called dynamite and dual-
in, which are less dangerous in their transportation, while be-
ing quite as effective in execution. The manufacture of ox-
ygen on a commercial scale can hardly be pronounced a suc-
cess, even at this late day. The three leading methods now
employed use the atmosphere as the source of supply, and
employ manganese and soda, or chloride of copper, or water,
as the agents by which the oxygen is detained and subse-
quently collected for use. The direct manufacture of chlo-
rine from hydrochloric acid, as accomplished in England, is a
step in advance of rare value. It will reduce the cost of
bleaching powders, and, as a consequence, give us our cloth-
ing, our paper, and our books at a much lower rate, and is
consequently very properly regarded as one of the most im-
portant technical improvements of the year.

The interests of humanity have been promoted by the in-
troduction of condensed food, and new articles of diet, the in-
vention of which was a growth of the late disastrous war in
France. There has not been sufficient time for all of the im-

xxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

provemcnts to be made known, but we shall in the end find
ourselves richer for the hard labor of the French chemists
during their time of need. A marked change has taken place
in the source of potash, iodine, and bromine. The Stassfurt
mines now yield the greater part of the potash and bromine
salts required by the world, and the Chile saltpetre appears
likely to compete with sea-weed as a store-house for the ex-
traction of iodine.

Such are some of the most notable indications of progress
in the department of Chemistry, the details of which will be
found embodied, in a greater or less degree, in our annual re-
port for the year.

In the departments of Geology and Mineralogy the princi-
pal progress in America has been in the way of information
respecting the geology of particular sections of the country
by the publication of various reports, such as the explora-
tions of Clarence King, Dr. Ilayden, Professor Marsh, and oth-
ers, prosecuted over a wide range of country ; by the reports
of geologists of certain states, as those of Michigan, Ohio,
New Jersey,, etc.

From Dr. Ilayden we have a detailed report of operations
in Wyoming Territory, and partial accounts, to be completed
hereafter, of the structure of the wonderful regions in the
vicinity of the head waters of the Yellowstone, where, in an
area of about fifty by sixty miles, we have one of the most re-
markable exhibitions of hot springs, geysers, mud volcanoes,
etc., to be found on the face of the globe.

Papers by Dr.T. Sterry Hunt on the geognosy of the Ap-
palachians and the origin of crystalline rocks; by Professor
Dana on the glacial system of the New England States and
Canada ; accounts of the geology of the diamond fields in
Africa, and new views in regard to the geology of New Zea-
land, are all in the list of communications for the year.

The visit of the Swedish expedition to Greenland for the
purpose of bringing back a large number of meteorites has
been crowned with success, and a number were brought home,
one of them of the enormous weight of over 40,000 pounds.
Unfortunately, these giant specimens have been found very
difficult of preservation, exposure to the air of cities seeming
to cause them to crumble into fragments, and to render futile
all means employed to prevent their entire disintegration.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxv

The Geographical inquiry during the year has been large-
ly directed to the north polar region, and the well-appoint-
ed American expedition under Captain Hall may be consid-
ered as taking the lead in point of prominence. Accompa-
nied by Dr. Bessels, of Heidelberg, an experienced arctic ex-
plorer, as the chief of the scientific branch of the expedition,
Captain Hall left the United States in July last provided with
every appliance that could be thought of for facilitating the
object of his mission. The latest advices from Greenland
showed that the whole party was in good spirits and emu-
lous to solve the problem of polar search. The autumn of
1872 will probably bring us word as to the actual results.

Another important expedition, in its indications of future
successes, was that of the Ice-JBear, under Messrs. Payer and
Weyprecht. These gentlemen, in a small vessel of only sixty
tons, succeeded in penetrating to a high northern latitude,
and in finding a sea free from ice as far as the eye could reach.
They were apparently only prevented from sailing many de-
grees farther north from the apprehension of ice packing be-
hind them and barring their return.

Other expeditions of less moment, in the regions to the
north of Europe and'Asia, have added a variety of informa-
tion to that already possessed, and have furnished data for
selecting the plans and routes of several great national expe-
ditions that will doubtless start early in the coming summer
one of them German, and another Russian.

Much has been added to our previous knowledge of vari-
ous portions of Asia and Africa, although in the latter coun-
try the principal interest has centred in regard to the actual
condition of Dr. Livingstone. The partial efforts to deter-
mine his whereabouts, and to extend any needed assistance
to him, are to be supplemented by a more extended move-
ment now in progress in Great Britain. The movements of
Sir Samuel Baker in his exploration of the Nile are watched
with great interest, on account of the enormous scale of his
labors, prosecuted under the direct patronage of the authori-
ties of Egypt. Reports of progress from Dr. Schweinfurth
and Dr. Xachtigal are presented in Petermann's Mittheilun-
<xen. The rush of visitors to the diamond fields of South
Africa has also tended greatly to extend our knowledge of
the geography and geology of that part of the world. The

x.wi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

recently published explorations in Madagascar, by Grandi-
dier, have tilled out a large gap in the history of that country.
In our own country an unusual amount of exploration has
been prosecuted in the Far West, the expeditions of Mr.
Clarence King, Dr. llayden, Professor Marsh, Captain Powell,
Lieutenant Wheeler, and others, contributing to swell the

general result.

Although no special work of note has been done in Central
America during the year, the reports of the expeditions to the
[sthmus ofDarien and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec have been
published in brief, and are in course of preparation on a more
elaborate scale. Professor Ilartt has made a further explora-
tion of Brazil, in continuation of several preceding it, and has
brought back valuable collections of natural history, and
many notes upon the languages and the ethnology of the
country.

Quite a number of parties have been engaged in prosecut-
ing inquiries in regard to temperature, currents, and organic
life in the deep seas, the most important expedition being
that of the Ilasskr, which left Boston in December last, with
Professor Agassiz and a party of specialists on board, and
which expects to prosecute its labors all the way to Califor-
nia by the way of the Straits of Magellan. Advices have
been received from the party as far as Pernambuco, showing
already a gratifying amount of success in their mission. Oth-
er local explorations of the same kind have been conducted by
the "Flora and other vessels on the coast of Great Britain;
by the Porcupine in the Mediterranean; in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence by Mr. Whiteaves ; and in the Vineyard Sound by
Professor Baird, Professor Verrill, and their associates; while
similar labors were prosecuted by Professor S. J. Smith in
Lake Superior, and by Mr. J.W. Milner in Lake Michigan.

The usual amount of activity has been exhibited in the way
<>f research in Zoology, both general and special; and not
only have numerous specimens been described, but many im-
portant facts in regard to the habits and peculiarities, physi-
ological relationships, etc., have been announced. The pages
of ilif present Record must be referred to for fuller informa-
tion "M this subject, as it is difficult to make a selection of
what is really considered as most important. We may men-
tion, however, that the subject of Darwinism has elicited a

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxvii

great deal of discussion, and excited much commendation as
well as animadversion. The tendency, however, appears more
and more decided on the part of naturalists to adopt this
doctrine, and there are now few naturalists of eminence who
have not given in their adhesion to the proposition that all
organisms are the more or less modified derivatives from ante-
cedent forms. One of the most notable works in this field
published in 1871 was "On the Genesis of Species," by Mr.
Mivart. While Mr. Mivart opposes " Darwinism" proper, or
Mr. Darwin's explanation of the modus operandi of evolution
by natural selection, or rather contends that the operation
of natural selection is much more limited than Mr. Darwin
believed, he accepts fully the doctrine of evolution per se.
While acknowledging, however, that man's body has been
developed from a simian form, he believes that his intellectual
and spiritual pre-eminence are due to direct creative inter-
vention. The tendency of the German naturalists, on the
other hand, is toward a more full acceptance of the views of
Mr. Darwin, some undertaking to carry them to conclusions
beyond what was contemplated by the author.

Among the points of special interest may also be mentioned
the discovery, by Dr. Greef, of a gigantic fresh-water Rhizo-
pod of very low organization, allied in some respects to Ba-
thybius, and named Pelobius by its discoverer. An announce-
ment by Mr. Crace Calvert that the temperature of boiling
water does not kill many forms of microscopic organization,
and that it sometimes requires a heat of over 400 to accom-
plish this, has a very important bearing upon the question
of spontaneous generation and sanitary precaution.

Other communications worthy of mention are those of Dr.
Gunther on Ceratodus, the remarkable amphibian-like fish of
New Zealand; of Dr. J. E. Gray on the skulls of the tortoises ;
ofW. K.Parker on the development of the skull of the frog
and the eel ; of Prof. Cope on the fishes of the Ambyacu, etc.

In Botany and Horticulture we have to record the appear-
ance of the valuable report by Mr. Sereno Watson on the
plants of Western North America, collected and observed by
him during the expedition of Mr. Clarence King. Nothing
of the kind has appeared in the United States for many years
of equal value. The ravages of the Grape-vine Louse {Phyl-
loxera vastatn'x) still excite much alarm in Europe, as in the

xxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

rapid spread of the infection it threatens at no distant period
to annihilate the wine - producing interest of Europe. As
might be expected, numerous projects have been proposed
for remedying the evil, one of the latest being that of so ar-
ranging the vineyards as to allow of their being flooded with
water to a depth of several inches, which, it is asserted, will
entirely destroy that form of Aphis inhabiting the roots.

In Agriculture and Mural Economy generally announce-
ments are numerous, and bear upon a great variety of top-
ics, both general and special. Investigations upon the ger-
mination of seeds, the influence of soils upon the growth of
plants, the function of nitrous acids in soils, the effect of the
salts of potash on plants, the mode of regulating and hatch-
ing silk-worm eggs, the extraction of ammonia from the at-
mosphere by humus, are among the number. For many valu-
able communications in this department we refer to the An-
nual Report and the Monthly Notices of the Agricultural De-
partment at Washington, which has also published a quarto
volume upon certain diseases of cattle, that will doubtless
prove of great benefit to the community.

In Pisciculture great activity has been manifested both in
America and Europe. The celebrated establishment at Hu-
ningue, in Alsace, having been recommenced under German
auspices, bids fair to improve upon its previous administra-
tion. A national society has been formed in Germany look-
ing toward progress in the same direction. In our own coun-
try the fishery commissioners of the several states have la-
bored earnestly in the discharge of their duty, and the meas-
ures adopted by them -to stock certain streams with salmon,
shad, herring, etc., have proved highly successful, so that we
have every reason to expect in a few years a restoration of
fish in many parts of the country to their original abundance.
The most striking experiments of the season have been that
of supplying the Delaware River with salmon, and the Sac-
ramento of California with shad. The former unfortunately
proved a failure for a time ; the latter, however, it is believed,
lias been a success.

The most startling achievement in the department of Me-
chanics and Engineering for the year is the completion of
the Mount Cenis Tunnel, commenced in August, 1857, and
finished, as far as the piercing of the mountain was concern-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxix

ed, on the 26th of December, 1870, although it was not actu-
ally used for the passage of trains until within the past year.
It may be a matter of interest to mention that the total
length of the tunnel is 13,365 yards, the highest summit of
the Alps above it being 5307 feet.

Various forms of artificial stone have been brought to no-
tice, some intended to resist air and water, while others are
recommended for furnaces and other localities, requiring fire-
proof material. Among them may be mentioned the selenitic
mortar of Colonel Scott, the Sorel cement, the Coignet con-
crete, the Dinas stone, etc.

The dangers of railway traveling have been alleviated by
the introduction into practical use of various forms of brake,
in which air and steam are used as the agents to stop trains
at high speed in a very short time. Improved indicators of
velocity have also been devised.

The idea of constructing railways of narrow gauges for
mountainous regions and those having a comparatively lim-
ited traffic has been a popular one, and numerous lines have
been commenced both in this country and in the Old World.
The average width selected seems to be about three feet six
inches.

The views of experts in regard to the supposed deteriora-
ting eflect of cold upon iron seem to have undergone a change
from the results of the experiments of Mr. Brockbank and
Mr. Joule, of Manchester. From these it would seem that
iron is actually made stronger instead of weaker by cold,
while the unmistakable fact of the greater tendency of iron
rails, wheels, and axles to break during cold weather is ex-
plained under the theory that the frozen soil is rendered
more rigid and unyielding, and that the shock of impact is
consequently much greater than where the soil possesses the
elasticity attendant upon warmer weather.

The war between France and Germany, happily termina-
ted during the past year, furnished an opportunity for test-
ing various forms of military weapons, every variety having
been brought into use and experimented upon during the
campaign. The mitrailleuse and the Gatling gun, while not
possessing the power of attack and defense attributed to
them by their advocates, have yet proved serviceable in cer-
tain conditions, and are likely to be adopted in future war-

xxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

fare. The needle-gun of Germany was found very much in-
ferior to the Chasscpot of France, and both are likely to be
superseded by the breech-loaders of American construction.
The drift of opinion among experts as to the comparative
merits of breech and muzzle loading cannon seems rather to
have been settled in favor of the latter, such improvements
in the construction of gun-carriages as that of Captain Mon-
crieff and others doing away to a considerable extent with
the supposed superiority of the former.

It would require a volume to mention all the discoveries
and valuable applications in the department of Technology.
For this we must refer to such contemporaries as the Scien-
tific American, to the Journal of the Franklin Institute, and
other standard chronicles in this branch of science. Among
a few, however, that occur to us, we may especially name
the method of engraving on stone, glass, and even wood, by
means of the continued action of an air-blast of sand, the re-
sults as to effect, and the economy of time and expense, being
quite marvelous.

The applications of sundry new dyes to practical purposes
have been very numerous, and greatly to the advantage of
the dyer's art. Among these may be included artificial ali-
zarine, which is now believed to be really superior to the na-
tive madder. The methods of extracting aniline dyes from
all kinds of fabrics, as announced by Mr. Keimann, promise to
be of great practical moment.

Photographic processes have been improved, especially in
connection with the methods of reproducing photographic
pictures by such processes as those of Messrs. Albert, Ed-
wards, Woodbury, and others. Establishments have been
opened in the United States for working under their patents,
and bid fair to meet with a measure of success.

An announcement of much practical value is made in re-
gard to the manufacture of glue, namely, that, for the purpose
of drying it, the surplus moisture can be best removed by
means of contact with salts instead of depending upon evap-
oration. The result is a diminution of the time of the opera-
tion by many days, which, in the warm weather of summer,
may involve the saving of the entire product from injury by
decomposition.

Improved methods for coating metals witli nickel, cobalt,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS FOR THE YEAR 1871. xxxi

zinc, etc., have been announced and brought into considera-
ble use. For further details in this department we must re-
fer to the pages of the Record.

The department of Hygiene has been enriched by import-
ant papers upon the microscopic fungi and their relationship
to disease. Dr. Calvert shows us that the clothing and other
objects infected with the germs, and, as such, liable to propa-
gate infection of one character or another, must be exposed
to a temperature of at least 400 before their vitality is cer-
tainly destroyed ; this heat, indeed, being in many cases suf-
ficient to char cotton cloth.

The subject of carbolic acid has also been discussed as to
its efficiency, and it seems to have lost somewhat of the favor
with which it was originally greeted. A long-known sub-
stance, called chloralum, recently brought forward as an anti-
septic by Dr. Gamgee, has also received a varying degree of
commendation and approval.

In the department of 31ateria Medica much interest has
centred, as far as the United States is concerned, in the ques-
tion of the virtues of cundurango, the supposed remedy for
the cure of cancer. Much speculation has been indulged in
in regard to the actual value of this substance, many persons
believing it to be a success, and others considering it entirely
inefficient. The decision of this question, however, we must
leave to pharmaceutical specialists.

Among the Miscellaneous subjects, or those that can hardly
be assigned to one branch rather than another, we may men-
tion that of psychic force, brought forward by Mr. William
Crookes as the result of certain experiments made with the
aid of the celebrated medium, Mr. David D. Home. Mr.
Crookes is a chemist of much eminence in the science, and the
announcement made by him, as the result of numerous exper-
iments, that he can not resist the belief in the existence of a
new and hitherto unrecognized force, has been received with
much surprise. The principal manifestations of this law, ac-
cording to Mr. Crookes, are, that the gravity of certain bodies
can be measurably or even greatly increased, under certain
circumstances, at the will of a particular individual, the ex-
tent varying with the nerve-power of the person and the
particular circumstances of the experiment. Very few of
Mr. Crookes's colleagues concur with him, and the great body

xxxii GENERAL SUMMARY, ETC.

of physicists are entirely incredulous. The final decision
must be left to the result of continued and careful experi-
ments by physicists of established reputation.

The scientific societies of Holland have associated them-
selves to form what they call a Central Bureau of Exchange,
for the purpose of carrying out the system of international
distribution of publications inaugurated by the Smithsonian
Institution, and with which they propose to act as far as re-
lates to the United States. All the publications of scientific
institutions and learned men in Holland, to be transmitted to
correspondents in other parts of the world, are to be sent to
the central establishment in Holland, at Haarlem, under the
direction of the Academy of Sciences of that city, by which
they are to be made up into parcels and forwarded to corre-
sponding institutions in other parts of the world.

The destruction by fire of the building, collections, and
library of the Academy of Sciences of Chicago has been a
great blow to that thriving establishment, especially as the
material within its walls was of extraordinary value, and
embraced rich treasures in science. A vigorous effort, how-
ever, is to be made to recover the losses, and it is not unlike-
ly that a few years will see this institution again on its old
footing.

The destruction of the greater part of the whaling fleet in
the North Pacific by ice during the past autumn has been a
calamity to the whaling interest of no ordinary magnitude,
second only, indeed, to the damage caused by the privateers
during the late rebellion. Most of the vessels, as might have
been expected, were from New Bedford, and their loss repre-
sents the abstraction of a large portion of the capital of that
city.

In a summary of the present character, it is, of course, im-
possible for us to weigh with any degree of precision the
comparative value of the various discoveries made, or to de-
cide upon their practical bearing, since some of the most val-
uable will not develop the full measure of their utility until
long after their first announcement. To those wishing to
become acquainted with any particular department of knowl-
edge, we must refer, as far as the present work is concerned,
to the systematic Table of Contents and to the Alphabetical
Index, where we trust they will not be entirely disappointed.

ANNUAL RECORD

OF

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

18 71.

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY.

XATUKE OF THE SITN's COROXA.

Mr. Proctor, in a recent article upon the solar eclipse of De-
cember 22, 18 70, remarks that especial effort will probably
be directed toward the solution of the problems connected
with the character of the sun's corona ;. and he sums up in a
few words the different hypotheses that have been heretofore
presented on the subject. These assign to the corona very
different positions in space. The first places the corona
around the sun, the second around the moon, and the third in
our own atmosphere. Whichever of these may be considered
as established, we shall have three different degrees of mag-
nitude and importance to assign to the corona. If it be a
solar appendage, its extent exceeds that of any body within
the solar system, save, perhaps, one or two of the most re-
markable comets ; if belonging to the moon, it is relatively
insignificant, but still has a volume far exceeding that of the
earth ; lastly, if confined within the bounds of our atmos-
phere, it no longer is to be considered as possessing any real
existence any more than the beam of light which shines
through the clouds can be regarded as an actually existent,
measurable mass. These hypotheses he discusses in their or-
der, and finds reason to consider them all untenable ; and
finally presents a different view from any, namely, that the

A

2 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

corona consists of some sort of matter, whether separate
solid or liquid bodies, vaporous masses, or groups in which
solid or liquid bodies are intermixed with vaporous masses,
traveling round the sun. From this conclusion he sees no
escape, should the others be rejected ; to his mind there be-
ing no remaining proposition that can be presented on the
subject. He therefore waits with much interest the result
of the experiments which will be prosecuted with the direct
object of testing the question with a calm assurance, how-
ever, that his suggestion will be the one ultimately substan-
tiated. 5 A.October, 1870, 378.

PROCTOR OX THE SOLAR COROXA.

Mr. Richard A. Proctor has published in the April number
of the Quarterly Journal of Science a critical discussion of
the observations made during the eclipse of last December,
with special reference 'to the interpretation of the solar coro-
na. It may be remembered that just before the eclipse took
place he showed within what limits the problems to be solved
by the phenomena in question were restricted, and stated that
the principal object to be reached was the determination of
the questions connected with the corona. He now proceeds
to show to what extent the ground has been covered, how far
his own anticipations have been fulfilled, and what yet re-
mains for further inquiry. In this paper he introduces what
he considers a reform in the nomenclature of the sun, substi-
tuting the word " sierra" for the colored layer or envelope
of prominence-matter in the sun to which the name chromo-
sphere has usually been given. The paper is followed by a
summary of the fruits of the various eclipse expeditions ;
namely, in the first place, that the corona has at length been
photographed, so that its peculiarities may be studied at our
leisure, without fear of mistakes arising from inexact deline-
ation ; second, that the connection between the ring-formed
and the radiated corona has been demonstrated by the pho-
tographic* and other evidence, showing how the height of the
bright inner corona corresponds with that of the outer corona
(this is thought by him to be a most important discovery) ;
third, that the fact of one of the lines of the corona spectrum
being identical with Kirchhoff's 1474, a line seen in the spec-
trum of our own aurora, has been abundantly demonstrated;

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 3

fourth, that the region in which the Fraunhofer lines have
their origin has been ascertained and shown to be an atmos-
pheric envelope (which may be some two or three hundred
miles deep) lying immediately above the atmosphere; fifth,
that the theory that the sierra is of the nature of an atmos-
phere has been invalidated, and that the earlier opinion (which
Professor Respighi had supported on the evidence of his spec-
troscopic observations) has been confirmed, if not demonstra-
ted, namely, that the sierra consists of multitudes of rosy
prominences, resembling the large ones in all other attributes
except size. 16 A, A2WU+1811, 247.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF DECEMBER, 1870.

The following report of the late solar eclipse, and of the
results accomplished by it, is furnished by one of the most
eminent of our American astronomers, and one who occupied
a prominent part in the observations made :

The weather along the narrow line of the late total eclipse
was generally unfavorable. Out of twenty or more parties
of observers, whose positions extended from the Atlantic to
the Adriatic, about half saw nothing whatever of the total
phase, and most of the other half were seriously interfered
with by the clouds. The Americans were generally more
fortunate than their European brethren. At Xeres, near the
Atlantic coast of Spain, Professor Winlock's party was en-
tirely successful. So was the English party at Cadiz under
Lord Lindsay. At Oran, in Algeria, the station selected by
Professors Tyndall and Huggins, a dense black cloud covered
the sun a few minutes before the critical moment, and did not
disappear till all was over. At Syracuse, the party from the
Naval Observatory, Messrs. Hall, Harkness, and Eastman,
were successful ; while at Catania and on Mount Etna none
of the parties saw any thing.

The first object of nearly all the parties was to learn some-
thing of the constitution of the corona, and especially to con-
firm or disprove the observations of the American observers
on the eclipse of August 7, 1869, which seemed to show that
the corona consisted of a glowing gas. The instrumental
means employed for this purpose were the spectroscope, the
polariscope, and photography.

One of the best organized spectroscopic parties was that at

4 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Xeres, under charge of Professors Winlock and C. A.Young.
They had four or more spectroscopes, of which two were
used by English volunteers. Their observations confirmed
the existence of bright lines in the spectrum of the corona,
which had been observed by Harkness and others in 1869,
but which the English astronomers were slow to believe in.
The most remarkable of these lines is a green one, supposed
to be identical with one of the lines of iron, and with the line
found by Angstrom in the aurora and in the zodiacal light.
This line was traced by Professor Winlock to a distance of
near 20' from the sun's limb. Professor Young traced it 16'
on the west, 12' on the north, 14' on the east, and 10' on the
south.

The other two spectroscopes were arranged so as to collect
the light from the entire corona and protuberances at once.
With one of these Mr. Abbay saw only two lines the one
just referred to, and the other the F line. With the other
Mr. Pye saw also the lines C and D3. All except Mr. Abbay
saw a faint continuous spectrum without dark lines.

But the most interesting observation was the following by
Professor Young : " Just previous to totality, I had carefully
adjusted the slit tangential to the sun's limb at the point
w r here the second contact w T ould take place, and was watch-
ing the gradual brightening of 1474 and the magnesium lines.
As the crescent grew narrower I noticed a fading out, so to
speak, of all the dark lines in the field of view, but was not
at all prepared for the beautiful phenomenon which present-
ed itself when the moon finally covered the whole photo-
sphere. Then the whole field was at once filled with bril-
liant lines, which suddenly flashed into brightness and then
gradually faded away, until in less than two seconds, nothing
remained but the lines I had been watching." There can be
little doubt that these bright lines emanate from the same
atmosphere, the absorption of which causes the dark lines of
the spectrum, the same rays which, by contrast, look dark
alongside of sunlight, being bright when the sunlight is cut
off by the moon. The existence of this atmosphere was long
ago inferred from the dark lines of the solar spectrum, and
Secchi had inferred that it formed a very thin layer over the
surface of the photosphere, from noticing that the dark lines
faded out at the extreme edge of the sun; but Young was,

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 5

so far as we know, the first and only one to recognize it dur-
ing an eclipse by its own bright lines.

The well-organized parties under the eminent English spec-
troscopists Messrs. Roscoe and Lockyer were prevented by
clouds from seeing any thing ; and, so far as we can learn,
none of the other observers did more than confirm some of
the phenomena observed by Winlock and his party.

All the observers describe the continuous spectrum of the
corona as beino; devoid of all dark lines. This has been re-
garded as showing that the corona shone almost entirely by
its own light, because the dark lines are seen in the spectra
of all bodies which shine by reflected sunlight. But the po-
lariscope observations seem to show that there is much re-
flected sunlight in the corona. In Professor Winlock's party,
Professor Langley observed with a Bavart's polariscope at-
tached to a small telescope. The bands were distinctly seen
on the corona, and were brightest where normal or tangen-
tial to the limb. It is understood that Professor Pickering,
who used an Arago's polariscope, also saw evidences of po-
larization. But Professor W. G. Adams, of London, who ob-
served in Sicily, saw no evidence of polarized light, while his
assistants saw it very plainly. On the whole, the evidence
seems strongly in favor of polarization, and therefore of some
reflected light.

Striking a general average among all the observations and
the conclusions to be deduced from them, it may be fairly con-
cluded that the sun is surrounded by four or more envelopes.

1. A gaseous layer about five hundred miles thick, contain-
ing a great number of chemical elements, which produce the
ordinary dark lines of the spectrum by elective absorption.
2. The red chromosphere and prominences, composed mainly
of glowing hydrogen, and extremely irregular in outline. 3.
A sphere of some very rare gas, hitherto unknown, shining
mainly by its own light, and forming the base of the corona :
the new green line proceeds from this- gas. 4. Irregular
masses of light, extending a degree or more from the limb of
the sun, the origin and nature of which are involved in obscu-
rity. These are found in the photographs, so they can not
be purely optical illusions ; but it is still an open question
whether they originate in our atmosphere, in the planetary
spaces, or in the neighborhood of the sun.

G ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

RESPIGHI ON SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.

The April number of the American Journal of Science
contains an interesting account of observations upon the so-
lar protuberances, by Professor Respighi, translated for its
columns from the Italian by Professor Wright. The conclu-
sions arrived at are, in the main, similar to those of Professor
Zollner, of which an account is given elsewhere ; the essen-
tial idea seeming to be that the photosphere is an incandes-
cent liquid mass or stratum, by the weight of which various
gases, especially hydrogen, are confined and compressed in
the interior of the sun at an elevated temperature, and that
these occasionally rise toward the surface with great veloci-
ty, until they force themselves through with a rapidity great-
er or less according to the depth from which they emerge.
The Professor suggests that it is these agitations* and erup-
tions which constitute the protuberances, and that the hydro-
gen issuing from the body of the sun serves as an aliment to
the chromosphere, thus repairing the repeated losses of the
latter by its not improbable combination with the substance
of the photosphere ; and it is suggested, also, that possibly
this immense stratum of incandescent hydrogen to wit, the
chromosphere may be the principal source of heat radiated
from the sun.

The solar spots, according to Professor Respighi, are nei-
ther cavities nor clouds, but are superficial modifications or
partial obscurations of the photosphere, produced by scoria?
or scum floating upon it ; or, as it were, solid masses of isl-
ands floating upon the liquid stratum. 4 D, April, 1871, 283.

TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN.

Dr. Zollner, whose graphic pictures of the phenomena of
the solar atmosphere are well known to many of our readers,
has lately discussed anew the question of the temperature
and physical condition of the sun. Assuming that the prom-
inences which presenfthe appearance of eruptions are really
produced by the action of explosive forces projecting vast
quantities of glowing hydrogen into the chromosphere, he
applies the principles of thermo-dynamics to determine the
heat and pressure in different portions of the sun's mass and
atmosphere. He obtains as a probable minimum value for

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 7

the temperature of the chromosphere, 49,850 Fahr. ; and for
the temperature of the interior region, whence the hydrogen
is erupted, 123,150 Fahr. Assuming the atmospheric press-
ure at the base of the chromosphere to be about equal to
seven inches of the mercurial barometer, he finds the pressure
at the level of the nuclei of the spots to be about 184,000 at-
mospheres, and the pressure in the inner region before named
no less than 4,070,000 atmospheres. 5 A, October, 1870, 419.

CHARACTER OF SUN-SPOTS.

According to a recent communication of Professor Zollner,
as given in JVature, " the sun-spots are slag-like by the radia-
tion of heat on the glowing and liquid surface of the sun, the
products of the cooling having again dissolved in consequence
of the disturbance of equilibrium produced by themselves in
the atmosphere. When these disturbances are not only lo-
cal, but generally distributed, the formation of new spots is
but little favored at the times of such general motion of the
atmosphere, because then the most essential conditions of the
surface are wanting for a severe depression of temperature
by radiation namely, the rest and clearness of the atmos-
phere. But when the surface has again gradually become
quiet after the dissolution of the spots, the process again re-
commences, and acquires in this manner aperiodic character,
in consequence of the mean relationships of the surface of the
sun, which may be considered as attaining an average in long
periods. The distribution of the spots in area must, accord-
ing to this theory, be determined by the zones of the greatest
atmospheric clearness, which, as has been shown, generally
coincide with the zones of the greatest abundance of spots."
\1 A.March 16,1871,393.

COINCIDENCE OF THERMOMETRY AND SUN-SPOT CURVES.

Mr. Stone, the astronomer royal at the Cape of Good Hope,
in comparing the thermometric curves taken at the Cape
since 1841 with those in Wolf's observations on the sun-
spots, finds an agreement between the two series so close as
to induce him to think that the same cause which leads to
the excess of mean annual temperature leads equally to a
dissipation of solar spots, and also that there is an approxi-
mately decennial period of such temperature. He leans, how-

8 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ever, to the opinion that the connection between the variation
of mean temperature and the appearance of the solar spots
is indirect rather than direct, and that each results from some
general change in the solar energy. 12 A, March 30,434.

PROOF OF THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS BY THE SPECTROSCOPE.

Iii the September number of the American Journal of Sci-
ence, Professor Daniel Kirkwood presents the testimony of the
spectroscope in regard to the truth of the nebular hypothesis,
beginning by calling attention to the supposed annihilation
of this hypothesis by the observations of Lord Rosse and of
Professor Bond, both of whom succeeded, in March, 1846, as
they thought, in resolving certain supposed nebulae in the
stars. These observations were considered by the majority
of astronomers as fatal to the claims of the nebular hypothe-
sis. But, according to Professor Kirkwood, this has more
than recovered from the shock it received, and the more re-
cent application of the spectroscope to the investigation of
the nebulae proves its truth conclusively. The general result
of the later examinations he sums up in the following man-
ner:

1. The ring nebula in Lyra, the dumb-bell nebula, the great
nebula in Orion, and others which might be named, are not,
as was but recently believed, extremely remote sidereal clus-
ters, but their light undoubtedly emanates from matter in a
gaseous form.

2. According to Lord Rosse and Professor Bond, the bright-
er parts near the trapezium (in the nebula of Orion) consist
of clustering stars. If this be the true appearance of the
nebula under great telescopic power, then these discrete
points of light must indicate separate and probably denser
portions of the gas, and the whole nebula is to be regarded
rather as a system of gaseous bodies than as an unbroken va-
porous mass.

3. Progressive changes in the physical condition of certain
nebulae are clearly indicated by the fact that nuclei have been
established which, as shown by their spectra, are not wholly
gaseous, but have passed, at least partially, to the solid or
liquid form.

4. The spectroscopical analysis of the light of several comets
reveals a constitution similar to that of the gaseous nebulas.

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 9

The spectroscope, then, has demonstrated the present exist-
ence of immense nebulous masses, such as that from which
Laplace supposed the solar system to have been derived. It
has shown, moreover, a progressive change in their physical
structure, in accordance with the views of the same astrono-
mer. In short, the evidence afforded by spectrum analysis
in favor of the nebular hypothesis is cumulative, and of itself
sufficient to give this celebrated theory a high degree of
probability. 4 D, September, 1871, 155.

DETERMINATION OF THE MASS OF THE MOON BY TIDAL

OBSERVATIONS.

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences on
the 19th of April, 1871, Mr. William Ferrel, of the United
States Coast Survey, gave an account of his discussion of
tidal observations with reference to determining the mass of
the moon. He used in this investigation a series of observa-
tions made for the Coast Survey during nineteen years a
full lunar cycle at Boston, Massachusetts, and a similar
series of observations made at Brest, France, from 1812 to
1831 inclusive.

Without going into the mathematical form of the investi-
gation, he endeavored to show that the moon's mass must be
mainly inferred from the ratio which the spring and neap
tides bear to the constant or average tides. This ratio, how-
ever, does not depend entirely upon the moon's mass, but
varies greatly for different ports, the heights and times of the
tide being modified by local circumstances ; and, consequent-
ly, the tides have not been hitherto considered an available
means for determining: the mass of the moon.

In addition to the constant, to be determined by observa-
tion, introduced into the conditions by Laplace for determin-
ing the moon's mass, Mr. Ferrel has introduced another, de-
pending upon friction. Hence, there being three unknown
quantities to be determined, including the moon's mass, he
uses the condition depending upon the moon's parallax in
addition to the two used by Laplace. Without the introduc-
tion of this additional constant and the additional condition
for eliminating it, Laplace's conditions for the determination
of the moon's mass entirely fail when applied to the Boston
tides.

A2

10 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Laplace selected Brest, where the tide has a direct and
short approach from deep water, and, neglecting the effect of
friction referred to, obtained, as is well known, the value of
^thj, in terms of the earth's mass, for the mass of the moon.
At Brest the ratio of the half-monthly inequality to the co-
efficient or half range of the constant tide is about .358, that
of the constant tide being about 2.25 metres, and that of the
mean spring-tides about 3.05 metres. At Boston the same
ratio is only about .14, the co-efficient of the constant tide
being 4.91 feet, and that of the mean spring-tides 5.58. From
data so widely different Mr. Ferrel has deduced, by means of
the introduction of the term depending upon friction, two
values exhibiting a remarkable agreement, viz., from the Brest
tides y^-re, and from those at Boston y^Vr- &" Nat. Acad.
(unpublished).

PARALLAX OF A STAR.

The bright star a Lyrae must now be added to the few of
which the parallax is known with considerable accuracy. Dr.
Brunnow, formerly director, of the observatory at Ann Arbor,
and now astronomer royal for Ireland, has lately computed a
series of careful and most accurate measurements on this star,
made by comparison with a minute star near it, known as
Struve's Companion. The result is that the parallax is- al-
most exactly one fifth of a second. An idea of the smallness
of this angle may be formed by reflecting that the smallest
visible object subtends an angle of about one minute; so
that if the angle which Dr. Brunnow had to measure were in-
creased three hundred times, it would still appear to the
naked eye as a mere point. Yet this is the angle subtended by
the distance from the earth to the sun as seen from the star.
The corresponding distance of the star is a little more than
a million times that of the sun, or about 93,000,000,000,000
miles. Previous determinations of this parallax, by Peters
and the Struves, have ranged from one tenth to one fourth of
a second ; but the extreme difficulty of measuring so small
an angle made them all a little doubtful. (Communicated.)

IS THE AURORA VISIBLE IX DAYLIGHT?

The question whether the aurora is visible by daylight, as
propounded some time ago in Nature, has met with several

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. n

responses, some denying and others asserting the possibility
of such a phenomenon. A Quebec correspondent, however,
insists most positively that he has distinguished, in broad
daylight, a movement of what appeared to be a light fleecy
cloud, which had the changeability and streaming character
of an aurora, and which, as night came on, developed into an
aurora of the first magnitude. 12 A,March 2, 348.

ANCIENT PHOENICIAN SUN-DIAL.

Some considerable interest has lately been excited by the
exhibition, before the Academy of Sciences of Paris, of a frag-
ment of an ancient sun-dial, obtained during the French cam-
paign in Syria in 1860 by M. Renan. This gentleman, then
forming part of the scientific mission connected with the
army, caused excavations to be made in different localities in
ancient Phoenicia, and among the objects of more or less in-
terest brought to light in this way was the fragment in ques-
tion. It presented certain mathematical peculiarities which
are too technical to be introduced here, but its entire arrange-
ment was quite scientific, and it has been restored and com-
pleted so as to show very distinctly the plan. The epoch of
its construction is believed to be subsequent to that of the
great Geometers of Alexandria, without whose labors and
discoveries it could not have been worked off; and it is prob-
able that it is to be included among the works of the Greco-
Egyptian renaissance. 6 B,Jxdy 25, 261.

METEORIC SHOWER IN SWEDEN.

A late number of Po^grendorff 's Annalen makes mention
of a shower of meteoric stones which took place in Sweden
on the 1st of January, 1869, not far fromUpsala. These were
scattered over a large extent of country, and one of them
fell on the ice close to some fishermen, and penetrated to a
depth of three or four inches. The largest of the stones
weighed about two pounds, and the smallest were very mi-
nute. While most of them contained, in large part, the usual
ingredients of such objects, there were others composed main-
ly of carbon, the percentage of this element amounting to
over one half, the other principal ingredients being oxygen,
hydrogen, silica, and peroxide of iron. 13 A, December 15,
1870, n. '

12 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

TACCHIXI ON THE PROTUBERANCES OF THE SUN.

Professor Tacchini, of the Observatory of Palermo, has late-
ly published some observations upon the protuberances of the
sun, and sums up his conclusions as follows :

1. That the protuberances are divisible into two great cat-
egories -filame?itous, and simply vaporous.

2. That in the great refractor of Merz the protuberances
are observed with the greatest precision and clearness.

3. That with powerful instruments the separation of the
protuberances into the two categories is quite evident, w T hile
with small instruments the observer may fall into the error
of attributing a common structure, without distinction, to the
protuberances in general, which explains the differences in
the various observations made with ordinary instruments.

4. That the whole of the border of the sun is a series of
flames. 3 A, September 23, 230.

EXPLOSION IN THE SUN.

The Boston Journal of Chemistry contains a communica-
tion from Professor Young, of Dartmouth, in reference to an
outburst of solar energy remarkable for its suddenness and
violence. Professor Young's attention had been directed for
some time toward an enormous protuberance of hydrogen
cloud on the eastern limb of the sun, which had remained
with little change since the preceding noon, in no way re-
markable except for its size. It w T as made up mostly of fila-
ments, nearly horizontal, and floated above the chromosphere,
with its lower surface at a height of some fifteen thousand
miles, but was connected to it by three or four columns
brighter and more active than the rest. The total length
w r as about one hundred thousand miles, and depth about for-
ty thousand.

After an absence of a few minutes, a remarkable change
was observed by Professor Young to have taken place in this
object, caused by its violent disruption during that period.
In place of the quiet cloud, the space above it was filled with
floating debris, a mass of detached, vertical, fusiform filaments
in rapid motion, some of them having already reached a
height of nearly one hundred thousand miles, and still rising
with a motion almost perceptible to the eye, until in ten min-

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 13

utes the uppermost were more than two hundred thousand
miles above the solar surface. The velocity of ascent, one
hundred and sixty-six miles per second, was considerably
greater than any hitherto recorded.

As the filaments rose they gradually faded away like a dis-
solving cloud, and in about twenty minutes only a few filmy
wisps, with some bright streamers, low down near the chro-
mosphere, remained to mark the place. The whole phenome-
non suggested most forcibly to Professor Young the idea of
an explosion under the great prominence, acting mainly up-
ward, but also in all directions outward, and then, after an in-
terval, followed by a corresponding inrush ; and ft is thought
possible that the mysterious coronal streamers, if they turn
out to be truly solar, may find their origin and explanation
in such events. In conclusion, Professor Young inquires
whether the fine aurora which succeeded in the evening was
the earth's response to this magnificent outburst of the sun,
and thinks the coincidence at least suggestive. 12 A, Octo-
ber 19, 488/ Boston Journal of Chemistry.

REDISCOVERY OF THE PLANET ERATO.

Professor Oppolzer, of Vienna, has, after a careful calcula-
tion- and examination, rediscovered the planet Erato, which
has been lost for over eight years, and has fixed its present
position so that it can be readily found by the more powerful
telescopes. There still remain, however, quite a number of
planets, such as Maja, which has not been seen for fifteen
years, and ten others which were seen only once, and the re-
discovery of which is hindered by the want of proper oppor-
tunities of observers and of suitable telescopes. 1 C, xl., 640.

PERIOD OF THE SUN'S ROTATION SHOWN BY MAGNETIC

OBSERVATIONS.

Hornstein has lately presented a paper to the Vienna Acad-
emy, in which he endeavors to show that the variation of each
one of the three elements of terrestrial magnetism (namely,
declination, inclination, and horizontal intensity) occur in a
period of twenty-six and one third days.

This periodic variation, as he thinks, is caused by the rota-
tion of the sun; and as the duration of the period, from the
mean of observations, consists of 26.33 days, we have what

14 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

may be considered the result of the first effort to determine
the synodic period of rotation of the sun, by the help of the
magnetic needle. The true period of the rotation of the sun
would hence appear to be about 24.55 days, very closely co-
inciding with the value obtained from astronomical observa-
tions from the period of rotation of the spots on the equato-
rial zone of the sun (according to Sporer, 24.041 days). 19 (7,

xxxv., September 2, 284.

______ m

TRANSIT OF VENUS IN 1874.

The attention of astronomers throughout the world is di-
rected toward the approaching transit of Venus, to occur on
the 18th of December, 1874, and it is hoped that the United
States Congress, with the same liberality that induced it to
make an appropriation for the observation of the solar eclipse
of December last, and for the polar explorations under Cap-
tain Hall, will also, at the proper time, advance the funds
necessary for the research in this ease. The British, German,
and other foreign governments have already initiated meas-
ures looking toward concerted action on the part of Europe-
an astronomers in reference to the observation of this phe-
nomenon ; and Professor Hall, of the Washington Observato-
ry, in a late communication to the Journal of Science, ex-
presses the hope that a similar concert of action will be set-
tled upon by American astronomers, in order that they may
not be behind their European confreres in the attempt to se-
cure satisfactory results. A committee has been appointed
by the National Academy of Sciences to .take into considera-
tion a general plan of operations, and it is expected that a
report will be made on the subject at the approaching meet-
ing in Washington City. 4 D, April, 307.

PEIZE FOE TELESCOPIC COMETS.

The Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna has offered a
prize of twenty Austrian ducats, or a gold medal of the same t
value, for the discovery of not less than eight new telescopic
comets prior to the 1st of June, 1872. This is in view of the
fact that, whatever the progress made in astronomy general-
ly, but little has been added to our knowledge of the comets,
and at the present day we can only catalogue two or three
hundred out of the many thousands that doubtless belong to

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 15

our system. As observatories have their regular work, which
will not permit them to search for these bodies, it is expected
that professors and private parties in possession of good tele-
scopic instruments will enter the field in competition for the
prize. 15 A, July 29, 148.

NEW ASTEROID.

A new planet was discovered on the night of September 13
last, at Marseilles, by M. Borelli, and named by him Lomia.
This constitutes the one hundred and seventeenth in the se-
ries of asteroids found between Mars and Jupiter.

NEW ASTEROID.

Another was discovered on the 11th of September by Dr.
Peters, of Hamilton College, New York, the same body hav-
ing been observed six days afterward by Luther, at Bilk.
This will be the one hundred and sixteenth of the series.

THE NATURE OF COMETS.

M. Faye, of the French Academy of Sciences, has lately
read to that society two elaborate papers on the history and
present state of the theory of comets. He commences with
some critical remarks on- a passage in the address of Sir Wil-
liam Thompson before the British Association last summer,
in which the Tatter spoke of the comet's tail as having been
one of the insoluble mysteries of astronomy. M. Faye con-
cludes from this view that the Continental astronomers have
not spread the knowledge of their labors in England, and
that the English have forgotten Newton's " Principia." Ac-
cording to Faye, it is an established principle that the tails
of comets, whether simple or compound, are due to a repul-
sive force exerted by the sun. The principal characteristics
of this force have been clearly determined. Far from contra-
dicting the received laws of mechanics, as Herschel seemed
to suppose, it is precisely by means of these laws that the
most complicated phenomena of the tails have been account-
ed for on the hypothesis of a repulsive force. All that is
wanting is to learn the exact nature of this force, and, if pos-
sible, exhibit its action experimentally. This is what the au-
thor has attempted. He lays down a law, or, rather, until it
is proved experimentally, a hypothesis, which he calls the

16 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

law of repulsion of incandescent surfaces. He considers that
white-hot bodies in general exert a repulsive force on matter
in a very rarefied state, but that this force differs from that of
gravitation in residing in and acting upon the surfaces of bod-
ies only, and in being intercepted by a screen of solid matter.

Considering the existence of this apparent repulsive force
as indisputable, M. Faye passes in review the theories of its
origin. First, we have the theory of Newton, now forgotten
in England, that the sun is surrounded by an extremely rare
atmosphere extending beyond the orbit of the earth, and that
the rare matter of the comet's tail rises in this atmosphere,
just as smoke does in our own atmosphere. The objection
to this theory is that the sun is not and can not be surround-
ed by any such atmosphere.

Then we have the hypothesis of Olbers, now adopted by
Zollner, that the repulsion is due to the electricity of the
sun. This last investigator shows that if the electric tension
of the outer layers of the sun's atmosphere is as great as is
frequently seen at the surface of the earth, a little sphere of
matter, half an inch in diameter, and weighing one sixtieth
of a grain, repelled by the supposed electricity of the sun's
atmosphere, would, when it reached the orbit- of Mercury, be
flying with a velocity of 2000 miles- per second. This view
is objected to because it is shown that there can be no elec-
tric action in a vacuum.

Another theory lately put forward is that of Professor Tait,
who, however, dispenses with the repulsive force, and consid-
ers that the whole comet is only a vast swarm of flying me-
teorites moving in a flat layer, which is only visible when
we look at it edgewise. He compares it to a flock of birds,
which are invisible when spread out, but plainly seen when
they are in a line with the eye of the observer. M. Faye
considers that this theory sets at naught all existing science,
whether observations or theory. But he looks with more
favor on another part of Tait's theory that the light of the
comet arises from collisions anions the meteorites which com-
pose it, and which are thus continually striking fire, as we
may familiarly express it.

M. Faye has attempted to prove his hypothesis by trying
whether a white-hot metallic plate would repel rarefied air.
The experiment was made in the presence of several savants,

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 17

and a repulsion was actually exhibited. Unfortunately, how-
ever, there was some difference of opinion about the inter-
pretation of the phenomena, and the decisive test has yet to
be applied.

SPECTRUM OF EXCKE'S COMET.

Professor Harkness, in a communication on Encke's comet,
states that ever since November 18 it became steadily
brighter and brighter, and its spectrum more distinct. On
the evening of December 1 the spectrum consisted of three
bright bands ; the most refrangible one being very faint, the
middle one by far the brightest, and the least refrangible one
having a degree of brilliancy intermediate between that of
the other two. The shape of each of these bands somewhat
resembled an isosceles triangle, with its base turned toward
the red end of the spectrum. In the case of the two bright-
er bands the light increased quite rapidly from the less re-
frangible edge of the band, until it attained its maximum at
a point distant from that edge by about one quarter of the
whole breadth of the band, and thence it gradually faded
away toward the more refrangible edge of the band. In the
case of the most refrangible band, the light seemed to be of
nearly equal intensity throughout its whole breadth. The
positions of the two brighter bands were measured, and the
resulting wave-lengths of the light, expressed in millionths
of a millimetre, are approximately as follows : First band,
less refrangible edge, 556 ; brightest part, 550.0 ; more re-
frangible edge, 534: second band, less refrangible edge, 515;
brightest part, 510.9 ; more refrangible edge, 499. The posi-
tion of the faint band was estimated, and the resulting wave-
lengths are, for the less refrangible edge, 458, and for the
more refrangible edge, 448. At times he fancied he also saw
a faint continuous spectrum, but could not satisfy himself
that it really existed.

Both in appearance and wave-lengths this spectrum bears
such a remarkable resemblance to that of the second comet
of 1868, that Professor Harkness is strongly inclined to think
their physical constitution must be identical. It will be re-
membered that the observations of Dr. Huggins showed that
the spectrum of the latter comet was the same as that of ole-
fiant gas.

18 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Perhaps the strangest feature observed in connection with
the spectrum of Encke's comet was the progressive shifting
of the point of maximum brightness in its middle band. The
observed wave-lengths of the light of this point, on different
nights, are aproximately as follows: November 18,501.0;
November 25, 505. V; November 26, 505.9; "November 27,
510.0; November 29,510.0; December 1,510.9; December
2, 511.9. It should be stated that while these changes were
ffoino- on the band increased in breadth.

The comet was examined carefully with a double-image
prism, but without finding any traces of polarization in its
light.

VELOCITY OF METEORIC STONES.

Professor John le Conte, of the University of California,
communicates to Nature an article upon the maximum veloc-
ity of meteoric stones on reaching the surface of the earth, in
which he adverts to the statement of Nordenskjold, that me-
teoric stones, weighing two pounds each, fell on the ice of a
certain lake in Sweden, and failed to penetrate, making holes
only three or four inches deep in the ice, and rebounding.
This slight velocity, however, he shows, by a careful calcula-
tion, to be entirely normal, and the result of the resistance of
the air, and not to be in any measure an indication of the ve-
locity which they had when entering the atmosphere. In
the cases of small stones, the professor states that the resist-
ance of the medium would very speedily produce retarded
motion, and before traversing twenty or thirty miles of air
they would probably move with a velocity approximating
uniformity, and under the action of gravity alone. In other
words, they would gradually lose their original velocity of
translation, and, descending nearly or quite vertically, under
the action of gravity, would ultimately attain a maximum
velocity, under the opposing influences of the resisting and
accelerating forces, and then descend to the earth with a uni-
form velocity.

lie thinks, however, the case would be different in propor-
tion as the mass is greater. 12 A, September 14, 18 VI, 398.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 19

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY.

THERMODYNAMIC ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION

OF STREAMS.

In a paper by Professor Rankine, on the thermo-clynamic
acceleration and retardation of streams, the attempt was
made to prove the following principle: That in a steady
stream of any fluid the abstraction of heat at and near places
of minimum pressure, and the addition of heat at and near
places of maximum pressure, tend to produce acceleration ;
the addition of heat at and near places of minimum pressure,
and the abstraction of heat at and near places of maximum
pressure, tend to produce retardation ; in a circulating stream,
the quantity of energy of flow gained or lost in each complete
circuit is equal to the quantity of energy lost or gained in
the form of heat ; and in the absence of friction, the ratios
borne by that quantity to the heat added and the heat ab-
stracted (of which it is the difference) are regulated by the
absolute temperatures at which heat is added and abstracted,
agreeably to the second law of thermo-dynamics.

Among particular cases of the thermo-dynamic acceleration
and retardation of streams the following were specified : Ac-
celeration by the addition of heat at and near a place of max-
imum pressure ; the draft of a furnace ; and the production of
disturbances in the atmosphere in regions where the ground
is hotter than the air. Retardation by the abstraction of
heat at and near a place of maximum pressure ; the dying
away of atmospheric disturbances in regions where the ground
is cooler than the air.

Acceleration by the abstraction of heat at and near a place
of minimum pressure; the injector for feeding boilers, in which
a jet of steam, being liquefied by the abstraction of heat, is
enabled not only to force its way back into the boiler, but to
sweep a current of additional water along with it ; also, to a
certain extent, the ejector-condenser.

The conduction of heat from the parts of a stream where
the pressure and temperature are highest to the parts of the
same stream where the pressure and temperature are lowest

20 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

produces, according to the foregoing principles, a gradual and
permanent retardation of the stream, independently of the
agency of friction ; and this is accompanied by the produc-
tion of heat to an amount equivalent to the lost energy of
flow. JPr. British Association.

REPORT OF THE TIDAL COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH

ASSOCIATION.

In the report of the Tidal Committee of the British Associa-
tion, Sir William Thomson stated that the chief object of the
originators of the investigation was the determination of
long -period tides, and particularly the lunar declinational
tide and the solar declinational semi-annual tide. The rea-
son for desiring the determination of such tides with great
accuracy was that this would give a means of estimating,
with absolute certainty, the degree of elastic yielding which
the solid earth experienced under the tide-generating influ-
ences of sun and moon. It was quite certain that the solid
earth did yield to some degree, as it must do so unless it
were infinitely rigid. It had long been a favorite assumption
of geologists that the earth consisted of a thin shell of solid
rock, twenty to fifty miles thick, according to various esti-
mates, inclosing an interior filled with melted material lava,
metals, etc. This hypothesis was, however, untenable, be-
cause, were it true, the solid crust would yield with almost
as perfect freedom (on account of its thinness and great area)
as if it were perfectly liquid. Thus the boundary of the solid
earth would rise and fall under the tide-generating influences
so much as to leave no sensible difference to be shown by the
water rising and falling relatively to the solid, showing that
if the earth, as a whole, had an average degree of rigidity
equal to that of glass, the tides would be very much dimin-
ished from the magnitude corresponding to a perfectly rigid
globe, with water like that of our seas upon it. This consid-
eration, he had shown, rendered it probable that the earth had
considerably more average rigidity than a globe of glass of
the same size. The mathematical calculation showed a some-
what startling result, to the effect that a globe of glass of the
same size as the earth, if throughout of exactly the same ri-
gidity as a small glass globe, would yield, like an India-rubber
ball, with remarkable freedom to the tide-generating influ-

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 21

ences, thus leaving a very much smaller difference to be
shown- by water if placed on the surface of such a globe, and
estimated in its rise and fall relatively to the solid bottom on
which it rested. The precise agreement of precession and
nutation, with dynamical estimates founded on the supposi-
tion of the earth being perfectly rigid, made it probable that
the earth was, in reality, vastly more rigid, as a w T hole, than
any specimen of surface rock in the condition in which it is
when experimented on in our laboratories. The proposed
tidal observation and calculation he considers to be the only
method which gives directly, and without any possibly doubt-
ful suppositions regarding interior arrangement of density on
the earth, a measurement of its elastic yielding to the tide-
generating influences. 15 A,Angnst 19, 1871, 237.

CEOLL OX THE ACTION OF TIDES OX THE EAETH.

Mr. James Croll, well known for his valuable papers upon
ocean currents and other physical phenomena, remarks, in
JSfature, upon the discussions which have lately taken place
in regard to Sir William Thomson's conclusion, that had the
earth solidified several millions of years ago, when it must
have been rotating much more rapidly than at present, its
form should have been different from what it actually pre-
sents; or, in other words, there should have been a much
greater difference than now exists between the equatorial
and polar diameters. Regarding all the other arguments ad-
vanced by Sir William Thomson in regard to the age of the
globe as unassailable, Mr. Croll does not agree to the conclu-
sion from tidal retardation, but considers the real objection
to the argument to be as follows : as the rate of rotation de-
creases under tidal retardation, centrifugal force must de-
crease also. The consequence, therefore, is that the sea must
be slowly sinking at the equator and rising at the poles. But
denudation is also lowering the land at the equator, and
therefore the whole question concentrates itself in this : Will
the denudation lower the level of the land at the equator as
rapidly as the sea sinks ? This question, hapjrily, can be an-
swered. The method lately discovered of measuring the rate
of subaerial denudation enables us to determine the rate at
which the land at the equator is lowered ; and from the prin-
ciples of mechanics, the rate at which the sea is sinking at the

22 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

equator can be determined. By this means it can be shown
that the land is being lowered by denudation as rapidly as
the sea is sinking, and that, consequently, in so far as this
part ol'the argument is concerned, it can not be inferred, from
the present form of the earth, what its form was at the time
when the solidification took place. 12 A, August 24, 323.

DIFFERENCE IN GRAVITY OF ISLANDS AND CONTINENTS.

A preliminary report has been made of certain experi-
ments that have been prosecuted in India with reference to
the determination of the intensity of gravity on an island sta-
tion as compared with that of one inland, or on the continent,
in the same latitude. As the result of observations upon an
island west of Cape Comorin, we are informed that gravity
on the coast was found to be greater than inland, and at an
ocean station like Minicoy greater than on the coast. 15 A,
August 19, 247.

OZONOMETRY.

Dr. Moflat stated, at a meeting of the British Association,
that ozone test-papers do not become permanently colored in
the neighborhood of cesspools, and that the brown colora-
tion, when formed, is removed by the products of putrefac-
tion. He also said that light, the humidity of the atmos-
phere, and the direction of the wind influence the coloring of
the test-paper. Moisture with heat accelerates the chemical
action, while a strong wind causes a greater amount of ozone
to impinge upon the test-paper in a given time. To counter-
act the effect of these, he recommends that the test-papers be
kept in a box. He described a tube-ozonometer, which he
had in use, and gave results obtained by an aspirator ozo-
nometer, and concluded by stating that the results obtained
by the latter instrument were not satisfactory. 18 A, Aug.
25, 562.

RAltf-PRODUCING DISTURBANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Mr. Laughton, of England, examines in Nature the ques-
tion whether the condition of the atmosphere can be influ-
enced by artificial causes, in the course of which he refers to
the assumptions of Professor Espy in regard to producing
rain by means of fires, and the oft-repeated assertions that a

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 23

heavy cannonade will effect a similar result. After a careful
consideration of the subject, he comes to the conclusion that
no human agencies can be relied upon to bring about any
material change in the atmosphere with any degree of cer-
tainty, although he thinks that large fires, explosions, battles,
and earthquakes do tend to cause atmospheric disturbance,
and especially to induce a fall of rain, but that for such a re-
sult it is necessary that other conditions be suitable, espe-
cially that the lower portion of the air contain a great deal
of moisture. 12 A.Feb. 16, 307.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF THUNDER-STORMS.

In a communication upon the annual distribution of thun-
der-storms in Austria and Hungary, Dr. Jelinek remarks that
from the critical investigations of past years it has been
ascertained that in the northern hemisphere there are two
minima and two maxima of frequency of such storms. The
first minimum occurs in the region north of the polar circle,
the second in the region of the trade winds; in both, how-
ever, summer storms are rare or entirely wanting. On the
other hand, the maxima of frequency of storms occur on the
one side in the vicinity of the equator, and on the other side
in the temperate zone, and, indeed, they seem to be more fre-
quent to the south of Europe. In illustration of this, he re-
marks that in Iceland thunder-storms occur almost exclusive-
ly in the winter season, and that in the northwest of Scotland
the winter storms predominate, although there is sometimes
a second maximum in July. The summer storms, on the
other hand, are most abundant in Southern and Southwestern
Scotland, as well as in France and the rest of Continental
Europe. It is considered quite a remarkable fact that Bey-
rout has quite a similar distribution of storms throughout
the year as Iceland. Thus for ten years, during the four
months" of June to September, not one storm was observed,
while in winter more than half the entire number for the year
occurred, of which one fourth were in January. Again, while
the number of these storms at Beirut seems to be very
small, they are still fewer at Jerusalem, only eleven having
been observed in the space of three and a half years. Sit'
zungsber. K. K. Akad,, Vienna. LXI.

24 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

CLIMATE OF PERU.

Dr. Miihry remarks of the coast of Peru that it presents
one of the most interesting excej:>tions to the general system
of terrestrial meteoration, and, as is usually the case in the
science of meteorology, that the true explanation of the anom-
aly is only an additional proof of the soundness of the general
laws as established. In the course of his article he remarks
that the narrow strip of country, only about fifteen geograph-
ical miles in width, lacks the trade wind, rain, and thunder-
storms, and is, consequently, a desert, although it is yet very
fertile where water is found ; and the air is not destitute of
moisture, having, indeed, no slight degree of saturation. The
temperature is by several degrees too cold for its latitude,
and the air is characterized by continued damp fogs, the so-
called garuas. The reason of this variation from the usual
system he finds in the fact that the trade wind blowing from
the Andes comes down beyond the coast, which, consequent-
ly, is in the lee or the shadow of the wind; and, in addition
to this, there is a powerful cold ocean current flowing past
it. The trade wind thus does not reach the lower strata of
the atmosphere until it gets some considerable distance out
to sea, and it is at this point that the rains first manifest
themselves. The fog referred to is thought to be due un-
doubtedly to the cold antarctic current, so that, if the one
were not present the other would immediately disappear.
17 C.March, 1871,112.

FORMATION OF CLOUDS.

An English writer, while criticising somewhat unfavorably
Professor Poey's new classification of clouds, remarks that in
his opinion there are but three ways in which it is possible for
clouds to be formed. These are, first, the cooling of a mass
of air in situ by radiation ; this forms stratus. Second, the
cooling of a mass of air by diminished pressure when it flows
in an ascending column; this forms cumulus. A modification
of the process is when sudden expansion takes place above,
so as to diminish the pressure through the entire height of
the column of air, and, in consequence of the cold due to
the diminution of pressure, produces condensation of vapor
throughout the column. This is Espy's explanation of water-

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 25

spouts. Third, the cooling of the mass of air by coming into
contact with a cooler mass of air than itself; this forms cir-
rus. 12 A, November 10, 1871, 28.

DIRECT CONDENSATION OF WATERY VAPOR.

Professor Forel, of Lausanne, after long-continued observa-
tion, has determined the quantity of water passing the Rhone
below the Lake of Geneva, and finds that to furnish this
amount it would require an atmospheric precipitation in the
basin above of nearly 45 inches. The actual precipitation,
however, amounts to but 27-J inches, and the question arises,
therefore, whence comes the surplus water? Professor Du-
four finds its origin in the direct condensation of the atmos-
pheric vapor on the ice, the cold rocks, and the snow-fields
of the Alps. The following experiment may serve to eluci-
date the principle involved: A vessel containing a cooling
mixture of 672 grams weight, on being exposed for an hour
in the calm, open air, increased five grams in weight from the
vapor condensed on its exterior. Direct measurements at
suitable points would be interesting for the purpose of ascer-
taining approximately what quantity of water is thus actu-
ally carried to the river. F. (7., 1871, 179.

INFLUENCE OF TREES ON CLIMATE.

The subject of the influence of " foresting," or the planting
of trees, uj^on the climate of a country, and of " deforesting,"
or destroying the forest growth, continues to excite much in-
terest throughout the world, as it is now well established that
the climate of many localities has been materially altered by
one or the other of these processes. Systematic efforts have
been made, in different parts of the world, for introducing a
growth of trees where these had either disappeared or had
never been known, from which important results have fol-
lowed in many instances. "We well know the effect upon the
climate of India of planting extensive forests of different spe-
cies; and we are informed that, as the consequence of a sim-
ilar experiment, Egypt, which formerly had only about six
rainy days every year, since being replanted on a large scale,
has already attained to twenty-four. Among the enlightened
measures of the administration of the French government,
%ne which is especially noteworthy is that of planting ira-

B

26 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

mcnse tracts of land in Algiers, especially with Australian
trees, namely, the Acacia mollissima and Acacia lophantha.
Plantations of these trees, started a few years ago, have at-
tained a height of from nine to twelve feet, and in their rapid
growth and great extent have already changed the climate
very much twice as much rain and dew falling in the neigh-
borhood as before. Under the same auspices, sixteen square
miles of the swampy, unhealthy country along the coast of
the Bay of Biscay, in the department of the Landes, was
planted with millions of trees especially the cork, oak, and
swamp pine with surprisingly beneficial results, the trees
having drained the land so as to destroy the swamp fevers,
and to change it into a healthy country with pine forests.
Biscay law requires that for every tree cut down two shall
be planted, and it is said to be executed with rigorous sever-
ity. 17 A.March 1, 1871, 35.

CYCLES OF TEMPERATURE.

Professor Piazzi Smythe, the eminent Scottish astronomer,
endeavors to establish the existence, in addition to the an-
nual cycles of temperature, of three seasons, which he calls
supra-annual. One of these corresponds to Schwabe's sun-
spot period of a little over eleven years, although it is sug-,
gested that this is simply a coincidence, and that the actual
occasion of the waves of the terrestrial temperature is to be
found in the red prominences of the sun. Another of these
cycles is a little more than two years in duration, while the
third is about fifty-six years. It is to the effect of these cy-
cles that the so-called changes of climate are believed by
Professor Smythe to be due. According to him there is no
actual change, only that these cycles in their course bring
back the same temperature. Taking a series of observations
from 1837 to 1869, Professor Smythe finds that a hot time
occurs once in about every eleven years, followed at intervals
of a little more than two years by a very cold period ; and,
arguing from these data, he suggests that the temperature
for any season may be foretold a year in advance, and that
the past winter in England was the first of a cold cycle, of
which the next will probably be exceedingly severe. 2 ,
June 11, 663.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 27

MOVEMENT OF TEMPERATURE WAVES.

According to Professor Dove, of Berlin, any abnormally
low temperature in Europe travels from the east to the west,
while any subsequent abnormally high temperature move's
from west to east. It is said that these generalizations have
been verified by observations extending over almost the
whole of Europe and a large portion of the United States of
America. I A, June 17, 288.

INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE IN THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL.

According to Professor Everett, the increase of tempera-
ture in the Mont Cenis Tunnel amounts to one degree of
Fahrenheit to every eighty-one feet of depth of descent, a
progression slower in amount than that hitherto observed
elsewhere. Mr. Symons has found the increase to be one de-
gree for fifty-four feet at one place in England, while exper-
iments near Paris give one degree for fifty-six feet. In sink-
ing a well in Siberia, although the earth was frozen to a depth
of about 700 feet, the increase of temperature was one degree
in fifty-two feet. 18 A, August 18, 537.

DIFFERENCE OF MEAN TEMPERATURE AT VARIOUS HEIGHTS.

The announcement has been made by Mr. Glaisher, the
well-known British meteorologist, that the monthly mean
temperature of the air at twenty-two feet of elevation is
higher than at four feet at all hours of the day and night in
January, February, November, and December ; in the after-
noon and during the night hours in the months of March,
April, August, September, and October ; and in the evening
hours and during the night in the months of May, June, and
July. He also states that the mean monthly temperature
of the air, at twenty-two feet and at fifty feet, is higher dur-
ing the evening and night hours through the year than at
the height of four feet, and also higher night and day during
the winter months. 12 A, November 10, 1870, 37.

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS.

A commission of the British Association has for some years
been engaged in collecting evidence in regard to the temper-
ature of the earth at different depths and in different regions.

28 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

By some of the observations, the rule heretofore announced
in regard to increase of temperature was corroborated, name-
ly, that which fixes it at one degree to about fifty feet, in
some instances varying a little in excess or diminution. At-
tention was called to the interest which would attach to
carefully prepared observations made in the great artesian
well near St. Louis, which, as is known, reached the depth of
3843 feet, greatly exceeding that of any other well of the
kind in the world. Unfortunately^ this well is blocked up at
a point comparatively near to the surface ; and it would in-
volve great expense to open it out again for the purpose of
prosecuting special experiments. Mr. Glaisher, on the same
occasion, presented some remarks in regard to the tempera-
ture of the air at different altitudes, and explained that, al-
though in general the cold increases the higher we ascend in
the atmosphere, yet at some seasons, at a certain distance
from the earth, the temperature is higher instead of lower
than at the surface ; furthermore, it was ascertained that at
given elevations the thermometer indicated a higher jDoint at
night than by day, and he therefore considers that up to
1000 feet the temperature may be occasionally higher instead
of lower than at the ground. 8 A, October 1, 1870, 185.

Everett's self-registering maximum thermometer.

A new pattern of self-registering maximum thermometer,
adapted for use in a vertical position, with a bulb in the top,
is presented by Professor Everett in his report on under-
ground temperatures. The contraction in the neck prevents
mercury from passing into the stem when the instrument re-
ceives moderate concussion. Before taking* a reading the
instrument must be gently inclined, so as to allow all the
mercury in the stem to run together into pne column near
the neck. On restoring the thermometer to the erect posi-
tion, the united column will flow on the other end of the tube
(that is, the end farthest from the bulb), and it is from this
end that the graduations begin. It is set for a fresh obser-
vation by holding it in the inverted position, and tapping it
on the palm of the hand. This instrument, like that hereto-
fore used, is protected against pressure by an outer case of
glass, hermetically sealed. 15 A, August 19, 237.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 29

FREEZING OF WATER.

In a recent communication to the Academy of Sciences of
Paris, M. Boussingault described some experiments showing
that water is not liable to freeze, irrespective of the degree
of cold to which it is submitted, as long as it is not allowed
to expand in order to change into ice. In one instance, wa-
ter inclosed in a strong steel tube was exposed to a temper*
ature of 8.60 Fahr. without congelation. This, however, oc-
curred instantaneously on unscrewing the steel end of the
tube. The fluidity of the w r ater was made manifest by small
steel spheres which moved freely inside of the tubes during
the w T hole process, and would have been stopped by conge-
lation. 12 A, July 20, 1871, 236.

DECREASE IX THE LEVEL OF THE GREAT SALT LAKE.

It is well knowm that within a few years past the condition
of the Great Basin in the interior of North America, in regard
to rain-fall, has varied materially, and that the percentage has
been much more than heretofore ; this fact being well estab-
lished by the greater increase of the depth in Great Salt Lake,
Pyramid Lake, and other localities. Regions which twenty
years ago were dry, and occupied by dwellings or roads, are
now many feet below the water. At the meeting of the Cali-
fornia Academy of Science, held on the 7th of August last,
Professor Whitney presented a communication, stating that
this rise had been arrested, and that the level of the water
was actually descending. Whether this be a permanent
change, or whether another alternation will occur, can not, of
course, be foretold. It is, however, well established by geol-
ogists that the Great Salt Lake at one time occupied its en-
tire valley, and thus was of vastly greater extent than at
present.

SMITHSONIAN METEOROLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS.

Among current works likely to constitute a new era in the
history of American meteorology maybe mentioned a paper
by Mr. C A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, upon the rain-fall in
the United States, as prepared and published under the direc-
tion of the Smithsonian Institution. These embrace observa-
tions for many years past, and constitute, in a measure, the cul-

30 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

urination of the long and patient labors in this direction as in-
stituted by Professor Henry, and carried out to their conclu-
sion. The matter, as given in this paper, embraces a series of
tables of the daily, monthly, quarterly, and annual rain-fall at
numerous stations in North America, with critical discussions
of the scientific questions involved, and is accompanied by
three maps, prepared with great care, exhibiting the rain-fall
for the winter, the summer, and the year. Numerous impor-
tant generalizations are discussed in this memoir, to which
we refer our readers for details.

A paper upon the winds of the northern hemisphere, by
Professor Coffin, was published some years ago by the Insti-
tution, but a new and entirely revised one is in an advanced
stage of preparation. The discussions and generalizations
with reference to temperature, barometric pressure, etc., will
follow in due succession.

DIFFERENCE IN THE AMOUNT OF RAIN WITH THE HEIGHT.

Mr. Pengelly informs us, as the result of a critical inquiry
on the subject, that under unobjectionable conditions, and at
the same station, less rain will be received by a rain-gauge
high above the ground than by one nearer the surface ; sec-
ond, that the total defect will increase with increase of height;
and, third, that the defect will not increase so rapidly as the
height. 12.4, June 29,1871,169.

poey's new form of cloud.

Mr. Robert H. Scott, in a recent article in Nature upon the
forms of cloud, referring to one mentioned by Professor Poey
as quite new to meteorologists, and as having been met with
by him on two occasions only, remarks that, according to Dr.
Clouston, it is common in Scotland, where it is called the
" pocky cloud," and is much dreaded as a prognostication of
stormy weather. This he describes as a series of dark, cumu-
lus-looking clouds, like festoons of dark drapery, over a con-
siderable portion of the sky, with the lower edge well defined
(as if each festoon, or " pock," were filled with something
heavy), one series of festoons generally lying over another, so
that the light spaces between resemble an Alpine chain of
white-peaked mountains. It is essential that the lower edge
be well defined, for a similar cloud, with the lower edge of

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 31

the festoons fringed or shaded away, is sometimes seen, and
is followed by rain only. 12 A y October 26, 18tl,505.

PREDICTION OF EASTERLY GALES.

An English writer, in discussing the question of easterly
gales, and the methods of foretelling their approach by
means of the barometer and otherwise, infers from the obser-
vations of the " Quarterly Weather Report" that such gales,
so far from coming almost without notice, are preceded by a
high barometer and a low temperature, and that an increas-
ing difference of atmospheric pressure between the extreme
limits of the British Islands is the danger-signal of the ad-
vent, direction, and intensity of all storms. At the southern
edge of these easterly gales he states that there always exists
a lower barometer than at the northern, and hence the change
of the position of low pressure marks out the track of the
storm. 3 A, October 28, 1870, 317.

NEW FORM OF WEATHER-COCK.

A German writer recommends a new form for the construc-
tion of weather-cocks, or wind vanes, as being more suitable,
and less likely to be moved out of place by slight puffs of
wind. The peculiarity of the vane consists in having two
wings instead of one, united at an angle of forty-five degrees.
11 O, September 12, 1870, 249.

CALM IN THE MIDST OF A STORM.

An Austrian meteorological journal contains an account of
a very remarkable calm occurring in one portion of an ex-
posed locality while a violent storm was prevailing in every
direction' round about the section in question. L. Gurlitt, a
well-known landscape painter, intending to make a number
of sketches on the chalk rocks on the coast of the Danish isl-
and Moen, encountered a gale blowing directly in the face of
the coast-line, and, failing to receive the shelter which it was
expected the trees, shrubs, and gullies would afford, resigned
his purpose, and sauntered about the locality with no partic-
ular end in view. He was led by curiosity to the very edge
of the precipice, and here, to his utter astonishment, he found
so perfect a calm that he was enabled not only to execute
the proposed drawings, but to lay his papers on the ground

32 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

without their being moved by the wind, while at a distance
of from twenty to thirty paces in his rear the trees were bend-
ing with the force of the gale. He subsequently, again and
again, observed this phenomenon when a high wind would
strike a vertical rock at right angles. By this he was led to
conclude that a mass of air in rapid motion, meeting with an
extensive perpendicular obstacle, is forced upward some dis-
tance above its upper edge, and then flows over like a wa-
ter wave, thereby protecting a belt against the direct wind.
Professor G. Torchhammer also, repeatedly noticing, in Jut-
land, that in stormy weather sheep congregated close to the
edges of precipices, found a perfect calm prevailing at such
points. Another observation would appear to confirm the
correctness of the above explanation. A cloud was seen for
nearly a whole day hovering on a level with the summits of
the rocks of Gibraltar, though during the entire time an east-
erly gale was blowing, from which it would appear that the
upward current created by the resistance of- the rocky wall
prevented the cloud from following in the direction of the
wind. 7(7, 1871,180.

' COLD OX MOUNT WASHINGTON.

Among the experiences of the Mount Washington winter-
party may be mentioned an exposure to perhaps the greatest
cold ever recorded in the annals of science. The temperature
was 50, and to this was added a hurricane blowing at the
rate of one hundred miles an hour. The combination of such
a wind with the temperature indicated would probably have
been entirely unsupportable but for the means of protection
enjoyed by the party in the dwelling which had been fitted
up expressly for their accommodation.

STORM SIGNALS IN THE UNITED STATES.

It is stated in some of the papers that the system of storm
signal observations now in progress under the direction of
the Signal Corps of the army Avas devised by Great Britain
before it was made use of by the United States government.
This is perhaps correct so far as it goes; but it is to Profess-
or Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, that we
owe the original idea of procuring dispatches regularly in re-
lation to the weather, and tabulating them, as also of placing

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 33

them on a map, so as to show, clay by clay, the general char-
acter of the weather throughout the United States. For sev-
eral years prior to the beginning of the war this system was
carried on regularly, and was of great interest to visitors to
the Institution. The occupation of the telegraph lines for
military purposes, and the fire in the Smithsonian building,
broke up the arrangement ; and it was about to be resumed
when the government undertook the work, thereby relieving
the Institution from the necessity of its further prosecution.

RELATION OF THE BAROMETER TO THE WEATHER.

M. De Fonvielle, an eminent meteorologist, endeavors to
show the reason why an increased atmospheric pressure gen-
erally accompanies fair weather, and a diminished pressure
wet. According to his theory, the dry winds come from the
north or northwest, and hence, traveling from a cold region,
the air has a tendency to descend, and, therefore, to increase
the pressure of the atmcTsphere, as shown by the rising of the
barometer. On the other hand, the winds laden with moist-
ure usually come from the south or southwest, consequently
causing a diminished pressure, and a fall of the barometer.
13 A, February 1,1871,121.

METEOROLOGY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

A report has just been published in Bremen of the meteor-
ological and physical conditions attendant upon the voyages
of the North German steamers between New York and Bre-
men during 374 passages. From this it appears that float-
ing ice is met with principally between the meridians of 46
and 51, and is more abundant east of that region than west
of it. The general direction in which the storms blow is said
to be between west and north-northwest; also, that fifty per
cent, of the entire number occurred during November, De-
cember, and January; twenty-six per cent, during February,
April, and October ; twelve per cent, during March and Sep-
tember; and the remainder distributed over the remaining
four months, from May to August. They reach a maximum
at 30 west longitude, and maintain it to 45 west, their di-
rection being northwesterly. From these facts, Von Freeden,
the author of the article, concludes that the storms begin in
the neighborhood of the Banks of Newfoundland, where the

B 2

34 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

cold arctic current meets the warmer waters of the Gulf
Stream, and that they are not West Indian hurricanes cross-
ing the Atlantic from shore to shore. 1G A, April, 1871, 282.

STORM-SIGNAL STATION IN THE AZORES.

Dr. Buys Ballot, the eminent director of the Meteorological
Observatory of Utrecht, has been lately urging the Portu-
guese government to establish a station in the Azores, to be
connected with the general system of European meteorolog-
ical observatories by a submarine cable which will shortly be
laid in that direction. By the reports of southwestern gales
that can be obtained in this way, it is expected that an am-
ple premonition of their approach can be given to the British
Islands and Western Europe? This will greatly improve the
system of weather forecasts as now attempted in Europe,
and make them approach more nearly in accuracy to those
of the United States Signal Corps, which have astonished ev-
ery one by their reliable indications. This accuracy is due
to the fact that most changes in the weather begin in the
west and extend eastward ; and the greater the distance to
the westward over which such observations can be made, the
more time will be given, of course, toward the east to pre-
pare for the impending changes. 12 A, June 22, 1871,156.

DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS BY THE BAROMETER.

Professor J. D.Whitney, in a recent communication to the
Academy of Sciences of San Francisco upon the use of the
barometer in determining altitudes, remarked upon the effect
which temperature exerts upon the instrument, and stated
that the difference between the cold of winter and the heat
of summer would sometimes, in the same instrument, involve
a difference in the cstimato of a given height of as much as
seventeen feet. lie hoped in time to have tables prepared
which should give the allowances that must be made for each
day of the year, and for different times in the day, an obser-
vation at 9 AM, sometimes giving a different result from one
taken at 2 P,M. at the same altitude on the same day. He
also expressed his dissatisfaction with the aneroid barometer
as a means of measuring altitudes, although he had experi-
mented with the best that were offered in the market. He
found them reliable for a certain time only, and they appeared

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 35

to have spells of irregularity from which they recovered very
slowly. He did not find any upon which he could rely for
heights above 1000 feet. Proceedings Col. Academy.

ANEROID AND HEECUEIAL "BAEOMETEES.

In a comparison of the aneroid and mercurial barometers,
made throughout a recent voyage across the Atlantic, it was
ascertained that the ordinary indications were the same in
both instruments, but that the aneroid was to be considered
as more sensitive to atmospheric changes. It always indi-
cated the approach of foul weather, or the change to fair, in
advance of the rival instrument. 8 A,Decembe?', 1870, 224.

COMPAEATIVE FEEQUENCY OF THUNDEE-STOEMS.

From a table by Dr. Klein, showing the mean annual fre-
quency of thunder-storms in different localities, Java appears
to be the most favored in this respect, one locality being
credited with 159 storms, and another with 110. Beyrout,
in Syria, can count only four, while Sitka has an average of
only one and a half per annum, as shown by a period of nine
years. 1 7 (7, no date.

METE.0E0L0GICAL PHENOMENA IN CHILE.

An unusual phenomenon was witnessed lately at Serena, in
Chile, on the 7th ult., due to the reflection of the sun on some
masses of clouds which extended in the form of cirro cumuli
along the Bay of Coquimbo. The sun's disk was seen some-
what opaque in the centre of a great cloud of a fine golden
color, along the edges of which were seven more disks of a
brighter golden tint appearing as satellites around the set-
ting orb. In the lower part of the cloud the image of part
of the Bay of Coquimbo was reflected, as if seen in a gigantic
mirror. The phenomena were visible for the space of seven-
teen minutes, when they sank gradually below the horizon,
like fugitive stars in the ocean. Panama Star and Herald,
November 2,1871.

CLIMATE OF MICHIGAN.

Professor "Winchell, in a late magazine article upon the
climate of Michigan, adduces figures to show that while the
July climate of Michigan is cooler than that of Wisconsin

36 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

and Minnesota, the growing season begins on the western
side of the state thirteen days earlier in the spring than it
does at Milwaukee, nearly opposite, and continues from five
to eight days later in the autumn ; a still greater contrast be-
ing appreciable if localities in the interior of Wisconsin be se-
lected. The extreme cold of Grand Haven, Michigan, too, is
14 higher than that of Milwaukee, the difference, according
to Professor Winchell, being all that distinguishes between a
fruit-bearing region and one in which fruits fail.

DOES THE MOON EXERCISE ANY INFLUENCE OX THE

WEATHER ?

A paper has been recently published by Streintz upon the
question whether the moon exercises any appreciable influ-
ence upon meteorological phenomena, based upon a discus-
sion of twenty years' observation at the Greenwich Observa-
tory. He gives it as the result of his investigations that the
moon, in our latitude, exercises no influence upon the barom-
eter, upon rains, nor upon the wind, which can be appreciated
by the most careful observation within the last twenty years;
and that if any such influence occur, it must be extremely
slight. 18 C, xxxm., August 16,1871,513.

SALT AND PYRITES IN HAIL-STONES.

The transportation of sand from Africa to Italy, France,
and the Canaries by means of hurricanes has frequently been
observed and referred to in scientific journals ; but a transfer
of salt, as recently reported to have taken place in Switzer-
land, is perhaps a more unusual phenomenon. According to
Professor Kenngott, of Zurich, a hail-storm lasting five min-
utes occurred at eleven o'clock in the morning of the 20th of
August, 1870, the stones from which were found to possess a
salty taste. Some of them weighed twelve grains. They
were found to consist essentially of true salt, such as occurs
in Northern Africa on the surface of the plains, mainly in
hexaedric crystals or their fragments, of a white color, with
partly sharp and partly rounded grains and edges. None
of the crystals were entirely perfect, but appeared as if they
had been roughly developed on some surface. There seems
little doubt but that their source was precisely the same as
that of the sand, having been taken up and brought over the
Mediterranean Sea from some part of Africa.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 37

A still more remarkable ^phenomenon has been recently re-
corded by Professor Eversmann, of Kasan namely, the oc-
currence of hailstones each containing a small crystal of sul-
phuret of iron. These crystals were probably weathered
from some rocks in large quantity, and were then taken up
from the surface of the ground by a storm, and, when carried
into the hail-forming clouds, served as a nucleus for the for-
mation of hailstones. 3 C, June 26, 1871,618.

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH IN THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL.

Advantage has recently been taken of the borings in the
Mont Cenis Tunnel to ascertain the interior temperature of
the earth, the experiments being instituted at a point in the
tunnel which was situated five thousand four hundred feet
. from the surface. Here special borings were made to a depth
often feet in lateral excavations, which were closed for a con-
siderable period of time after the instruments were inserted.
The temperature observed at this point was a little over 82^
Fahr. 7 C\ 1871,304.

INFLUENCE OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ON TIDES.

Dr. Carpenter, in a late communication to Nature, calls at-
tention to the neglect, in the late discussions upon the ocean
currents, of published observations made upon the influence
of variations of barometric pressure upon the sea-level. In
this connection he remarks that, according to one author, a
fall of one inch in the barometer is pretty uniformly accom-
panied by a rise of the sea-level to about thirteen times this
amount, or thirteen inches ; and another makes the ratio to
be about one to thirteen and a half inches, this being subse-
quently corrected to about twelve and three fourths inches.
Dr. Carpenter thinks that this relationship of barometric press-
ure to the height of the tides may serve to explain a number
of anomalous phenomena that have perplexed, observers, es-
pecially with reference to unusual rises of tide, and their re-
tention at a high level longer than customary. 12 A, April
20,1871,481.

RELATION OF RADIATION IN THE TROPICS TO ZODIACAL LIGHT.

M. Galliard, of Guadaloupe, states, as the result of numer-
ous and exact observations, that between the tropics radia-

38 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

tion appears to exist in a constant relation to the density of
the zodiacal light ; or, in other words, that its light is a screen,
which, by its relative opacity, arrests a portion of the heat
emitted by the sun. This fact is, he says, placed beyond a
doubt by a long series of thermometrical observations com-
pared with the observations of the density of the zodiacal
light. 3 B, September 7, 1871, 524.

BLUE COLOR OF LAKE WATEK.

We have already made some reference to the observations
of Professor Tyndall in regard to the cause of the blue color
of the Lake of Geneva, and to his ascribing it to the presence
of solid particles of extreme fineness suspended in the water.
The researches of Professor Tyndall, and of Professor Loret
on the same subject, have been reproduced by Professor De-
lafontaine, of Chicago, and lately presented before the Acad-
emy of Sciences of that city. As the result of his observa-
tions, he stated that common water, when crossed by a beam
of light, becomes illuminated, and assumes a blue color, polar-
izing the light in the same w T ay that air does, and that it loses
this property on having undergone a complete purification by
the removal of solid matter suspended in the liquid. His ex-
periments were tried upon the Chicago River water in its
natural state, which exhibited great illuminating power even
after a rest of several weeks. By first filtering and then care-
fully distilling the same water, w T ith the aid of permanganate
of potash, for the purpose of removing the organic matter, he
found that it lost almost the whole of its power of illumina-
tion. Chicago Times, December 14,1870.

PHYSICAL ATLAS OF FRANCE.

An important work has just been commenced in France,
under the direction of Messrs. Delaunay and Marie Davy,
with the title of" Physical Atlas of France," a specimen num-
ber having been issued by these gentlemen for the criticism
of their friends and correspondents. The scale on which most
of the maps are to be executed is two millionths of an inch,
which is thought to be sufficiently large to allow a represen-
tation of the different elements to be included. The subjects
treated of in this atlas will be classified under six different
heads : first, the political administrative condition of France,

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 39

such as the ancient and modern divisions into provinces, de-
partments, judicial districts, university and military districts,
etc. ; second, the soil and the waters of France, such as maps
of the bottom of the sea, of the flora and marine fauna of the
coast, relief maps of the soil and water-courses, general and
special geological maps, etc. ; third, the climatology of France,
showing the lines of equal temperature, rairi and wind maps
according to the season, maps of storms, hail, etc. ; fourth,
the agronomy of France, such as maps of geographic botany,
of the leafing, flowering, and fructification of plants, maps
showing the condition of culture, the portions occupied by
woods, sterile patches, meadows, etc., maps of natural and
artificial irrigations, etc. ; fifth, the industry, commerce, and
navigation of France, including maps of telegraphic and post-
al lines, of railways and canals, and showing the distribu-
tion of the different industries, as well as maps of the mineral
and manufacturing productions. The sixth and last division
is that of population, including ethnology and archaeology,
maps of the density of the population, of the price of daily
labor, maps of primary, secondary, and superior instruction,
of the prisons, the endemic maladies, the size of the conscripts,
etc.

The specimen number of this work relates to the navigable
waters, and how far they* are navigable from the sea for war
or other vessels, the amount of w r ater at the different seasons,
their industrial utilization, the amount disposable for agricul-
ture and the amount actually used for irrigation, the mineral
composition of the waters, etc. Also the relief of the bottom
of the sea, and the composition of its bottom in reference to
navigation ; and the mineral, animal, and vegetable produc-
tions found at the bottom of the sea, and the places of their
production ; the sedentary and nomadic population, who oc-
cupy their time in fishing ; the position of light-houses and
life-saving stations, etc. 3 J?, xxvi., October 26, 1871, 213.

PEXDULUM EXPERIMENTS IX IXDIA.

We have already referred to the pendulum experiments
carried on by Captain. Basevi in India, having for their spe-
cial object the determination of the mass of the earth in that
region, and we regret to hear of the untimely interruption of
these important observations by the death of this accomplish-

40 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ed physicist. As far as the results of his labors are known,
it would appear that the local variations of gravity which are
superposed on the great law of increase from the equator to
the poles, though apparently irregular when examined singly,
are subject to laws which are highly interesting and curious,
and are well worthy of investigation. At the northern ex-
tremity of the arc the results indicate a deficiency of density
as the stations approach the Himalayan Mountains, while at
the southern extremity they show an increase of density as
the stations approach the ocean : thus both groups of results
point to a law of diminution of density under mountains and
continents, and an increase under the bed of the ocean.

While this applies to altitudes of seven thousand feet and
under, it remained to determine the conditions at greater
heights, and arrangements were made to experiment on some
of the table-lands of the interior of the Himalayas fourteen
thousand to seventeen thousand feet in height. After this
was done, the pendulums were to be taken back to England,
and swung at the base stations of Greenwich and Kew, stop-
ping at Aden, on the Suez Canal. In this way the gravity
at Aden would be directly compared with that at certain
points of the coast and continental stations of the Indian pen-
insula, while the plains of Egypt would be compared with the
Himalayan Mountains. In the prosecution of this research,
Captain Basevi reached a spot in Ladak where, at an altitude
of fifteen thousand five hundred feet, he completed a satisfac-
tory series of observations, which show a very gross deficien-
cy of density. After applying the usual reductions to sea-
level, etc., it was found that the force of gravity at that point
did not exceed the normal amount for the parallel of six de-
grees to the south, as determined by previous observations
with the same pendulums.

Wishing to have one more independent determination at a
high altitude, Captain Basevi continued his journey to a point
on the borders of the Chinese territories at an altitude of
about sixteen thousand feet. Here, however, his labors were
abruptly closed by disease, which had been impending for
some time, and but a short period elapsed before his death
occurred.

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND. 41

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND.

PHOTOGRAPHING MAGNETIC CURVES.

Professor A. M. Mayer, of Lehigh University, has devised
an ingenious method of fixing, photographing, aifd exhibiting
the magnetic spectra. For this purpose he takes a clean
plate of thin glass and coats it with a film of shellac, formed
by flowing over it an alcoholic solution of this substance just
as the photographic print is coated with collodion. After
the plate has remained a day or two in a dry atmosphere, it
is placed over a magnet or magnets, with the ends resting on
slips of wood so that, the under surface of the plate just
touches the niasmet. Fine iron filings are now sifted uni-
formly over the film of lac by means of a fine sieve. The
spectrum is then produced, on vibrating the plate, by letting
fall vertically upon it, at different points, a light piece of
copper wire. The plate is now cautiously lifted off the mag-
net, and brought quite close to the under surface of a cast-
iron plate which has been well heated. Here the shellac is
softened uniformly, and the iron filings sink into the film, and
are fixed. The heat should be allowed to continue until the
metallic lustre of the filings has disappeared by sinking into
the shellac, and the film appears quite transparent. After
the plate is cooled, any superfluous filings are knocked off by
inverting and gently tapping it. These plates may then be
used either as permanent objects of exhibition, or as nega-
tives from which to print, in the usual way, an accurate rep-
resentation of the foci, lines of direction, etc. They can also
be used as slides for a magic lantern. Am. Jour. &ci., April,
1871,260.

duchemin's electric pile.

M. Duchemin has recently presented to the notice of the
French Academy of Science a new electrical pile, which is
so arranged that, on being placed in contact with the sea, it
instantly becomes a source of electricity, by means of the
oxidizing of the liquid which surrounds it, as well as by agi-
tation and perpetual renewal. His model consisted of a per-

42 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

forated vase, placed on a cross-piece of wood and supported
on a float. This vase is protected by a cylinder made of
thick zinc, and pierced with holes, the stem of which repre-
sents the negative pole. In this vase is placed a piece of
carbon, on top of which the positive conductor pole is placed.
This piece of carbon is surrounded by fragments of coke and
perchloride of iron, and the top of the vase is suitably closed.
Under the imfluence of the salt water the zinc decomposes the
liquid, the hydrogen passes to the perchloride, and the elec-
tricity is thus exhibited in a very appreciable form. 7 A,
June 15, 535.

NEW SALT FOR ELECTRICAL BATTERIES.

A French chemist, M. Eteve, has patented a composition of
the double acetate of iron and potassa, for the purpose of pro-
ducing very intense electrical currents, and intended espe-
cially as a substitute for nitric acid, which, as is known, pro-
duces very disagreeable nitrous vapors. For this purpose,
one part, by weight, of the sulphate of iron, and the same
quantity of the nitrate of potassa, are dissolved in a proper
quantity of the acetic acid of commerce, the solution being
aided by a slight degree of heat. The crystals which form
on cooling are to be collected, washed, and dried in the stove.
4 B, August 1, 747.

GALVANIC ELEMENT WITH ONE LIQUID.

A galvanic element with one liquid, as recently announced,
consists of a galvanic cell, composed of zinc and carbon,
placed in a fluid made up of 40 parts of water, 4.5 of bichro-
mate of potassa, 9 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, 4
parts of sulphate of soda, and 4 parts of the double sulphate
of potassa and iron, this producing a very regular current.
It is said that the zinc need not be amalgamated, and that no
gas is evolved. 5 A, October, 1870, 440.

ELECTRO-DEPOSITED IRON.

According to Dr. Klein, iron obtained by galvanic deposit
is not the pure metal, as generally supposed, but is a mixture
of iron and hydrogen, which, when heated to redness, gives
off an enormous amount of the gas, and, while greatly in-
creasing in bulk, becomes a silver white, very soft, ductile,

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND. 43

and malleable metal, which decomposes water readily below
the boiling point, and oxidizes very rapidly. 1 A, Septem-
ber 23, 155.

IMPROVED ELECTRIC AMALGAM.

It is well known that a deposit of moisture greatly inter-
feres with the action of electrical machines, experiments often
wholly failing from this cause, especially in the winter sea-
son. Mr. F. Dietlen, of Klagenfuit, has devised a method by
which he obviates this difficulty, consisting simply in a modi-
fication of the amalgamation of the rubber cushion. For this
purpose he pours petroleum over zinc filings, and adds an
equal quantity of mercury (though an excess of mercury fa-
cilitates the process). The mixture is then brought, by work-
ins; together in a mortar, to the condition of a homogeneous
paste, and pressed between a double cloth. A soft mass is
thus obtained, which, however, soon hardens ; but which, be-
ing finely pulverized and mixed with a proper quantity of
grease, is spread upon the rubber cushion. This makes the
surface quite glossy, and, when the glass disk has previously
been wiped with a piece of cotton slightly impregnated with
petroleum or benzine, will act even in damp localities where
the usual arrangement fails. 9 C\ 1871, in., 20.

DEVELOPMENT OF OZONE BY THE BATTERY.

Professor Boettger informs us that if a solution of nitrate
of bismuth be decomposed by the galvanic current, an un-
commonly large amount of ozone is developed at the pole
connected with the platinum element, while the platinum it-
self becomes coated with a layer of superoxide of bismuth at
the same time. By a similar treatment of a silver or lead salt
there is a like deposit of superoxide of these metals, but with-
out any special development of ozone. 15 C, 18*71, xx., 320.

CELESTIAL ORIGIN OF POSITIVE ELECTRICITY.

M. Becquerel has recently presented a memoir to the Acad-
emy of Sciences of Paris upon the celestial origin of atmos-
pheric electricity, or rather of the positive electricity distrib-
uted in enormous quantities in the planetary spaces. This
he finds in the hydrogen electrized positively which escapes
continually from the sun. According to modern observa-

44 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

tions the solar spots arc in reality cavities, by which the hy-
drogen, and the various substances composing the solar at-
mosphere, escape from the photosphere, this hydrogen being
the result of a decomposition, bringing with it positive elec-
tricity, which is distributed in the planetary spaces, diminish-
ing in intensity more and more toward the earth, in conse-
quence of the poor conducting power of the more and more
dense strata of the air, and of the superficial crust of the
earth, this latter being negative only because it is less posi-
tive than the air.

For this electricity to be propagated in any medium, some
substance is necessary as a vehicle ; and it is established, in
fact, that the luminous properties of electricity belong in a
great degree, if not entirely, to the ponderable matter across
which the electric discharges are transmitted. The auroras
result from the discharges of this electricity, thus explaining,
according to M. Becquerel, the rustling or crackling sound
heard by the inhabitants of the polar regions. This occur-
rence, although apparently well attested, has been denied by
some ; but the experience of M. Rollier, the intrepid aeronaut
who was carried in his balloon last December from Paris to
Norway, and landed upon a snow-covered mountain 10,000
feet high, confirms this view. This gentleman remarks, in
his report of the voyage, that while passing through a thin
fog he perceived the brilliant rays of an aurora tinging every
thing with its strange light. Very soon a curious and incom-
prehensible roaring was heard ; but this, after a time, ceased
entirely, with the development of a decided odor of sulphur,
which was almost suffocating. 3 J5, 1811, August 10, 172.

DUKATIOX OF VISION.

Professor Ogden N. Rood, of Columbia College, in a late
number oi SillimarCs Journal has an article upon the amount
of time necessary for vision, and refers to an experiment of
Wheatstone, which seems to show that distinct vision is pos-
sible in a period of less than one millionth of a second. He,
however, refers to experiments of his own, by which electric
sparks were produced whose duration was only the forty bil-
lionth part of a second; and yet, during their continuance,
the letters on a printed page were plainly to be seen ; and in
polariscope observations the cross and rings around the axis

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND. 45

of crystals could be appreciated, with all their peculiarities.
He thinks, however, that while this period is sufficient for the
production of a strong and distinct impression upon the reti-
na, a smaller interval will suffice for many purposes, and that
four billionths of a second, and, perhaps, even a shorter time,
may be sufficient. This, according to the Professor, is not so
wonderful, if we accept the doctrine of the undulatory theory
of lio-ht, as, according to it, in four billionths of a second
nearly two and a half millions of the mean undulations of
light reach and act upon the eye. 4X>, September, 1871,155.

INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON PETROLEUM.

According to recent researches, petroleum, when exposed
to solar light, absorbs oxygen and changes it into ozone, al-
though this does not combine with the oil, the ozone remain-
ing free, and oxidizing every thing with which it comes in
contact. Petroleum oils impregnated with ozone have a to-
tally altered smell, burn with more difficulty, and attack the
cork stoppers of the vessels very strongly. If the vessels are
of glass, their color exercises much influence upon the absorp-
tion of oxygen by the petroleum. Thus petroleum oils, when
exposed in white glass to solar and daylight, become yellow
and impregnated with ozone, assuming a greater specific
gravity, and losing their ready combustibility. This is said
to be especially the case with American petroleums. The
practical inference may therefore be deduced that petroleum
intended for burning should be kept in stone or metal vessels,
or, if in glass, protected as much as possible against the influ-
ence of daylight, 13 (7, 1871, August 11,1151.

SPECTPvUM ANALYSIS OF BLOOD.

Mr. H. C. Sorby, well known for his skill in spectrum anal-
ysis, in reply to certain expressed doubts, maintains that
there is no better way of determining the existence of blood,
-under any given circumstances, than its examination by
means of the spectroscope. The absorption bands are perfect-
ly distinct and well defined, and, indeed, so marked that a
stain containing less than one hundredth of a grain can be
recognized even after the lapse of fifty years. In this asser-
tion he does not wish to be understood as stating that human
blood can be thus definitelv distinguished from that of other

46 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

animals, but simply blood as compared with other animal and
vegetable coloring substances. 20 A, June 10,658.

DIFFUSION OF LIGHT BY FUCIISINE.

Mr. Christiansen was the first to ascertain that the disper-
sion of light by fuchsine is different from that of other bodies.
Mr. Kundt has since discovered that nearly all bodies which
in the solid state show a well-defined surface color have an
abnormal dispersion spectrum when examined in the form of
a concentrated solution. In fuchsine, aniline blue, aniline
green, indigo, indigo carmine, carthamine, murexide, cyanine,
hyper-manganate of potash, and in carmine, the red "light is
more dispersed than the blue; and in bodies with green in
their surface color, the green in the spectrum is least deflect-
ed. Thus cyanine, aniline violet, aniline blue, and even in-
digo carmine, give the colors as follows : green, blue, red
the green being least deflected. 19 C, xx., 162.

THE SPECTROSCOPE FOR TESTING THE PURITY OF WATER.

Professor Church, of Cirencester, has lately applied the
spectroscope to excellent advantage in determining the ques-
tion of infiltration of sewage into water. In one instance,
where several cases of typhoid fever had been developed in
a particular neighborhood, which it was suspected had been
caused by the use of water contaminated by drainage from a
urinal, a few grains of a lithium salt were introduced into the
urinal. Two hours after, a spectroscopic examination of the
well-water referred to showed unmistakably the presence of
lithium, while previously no traces of its existence had been
found under the same treatment. 1 A, December 30, 322.

ILLUSTRATION OF FLUORESCENCE.

Professor Fliickiger, of Berne,has recently detailed a method
of preparing a liquid which exhibits the phenomenon of fluo-
rescence to a very remarkable degree. If one drop of nitric
acid be added to about seventy of the essential oil of pepper-
mint, and the two thoroughly shaken together, the fluid turns
to a faint yellow color, and then becomes brownish. After
an hour or more it assumes a brilliant blue-violet, or green-
ish-blue, when examined by transmitted light. Seen by re-
flected light, the liquid is of a copper color, and not transpa-
rent. ^6 A, April 20, 527.

C. ELECTEICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND. 47

BLUE COLOR OF LAKE AND SEA WATER.

Professor Tyndall has recently been investigating the cause
of the blue color of the water of the Lake of Geneva, speci-
mens having been transmitted to him for the purpose. He
finds that this color is caused, as had previously been sug-
gested, by the presence of small mineral particles, probably
derived from glacier dust (brought into the lake by drain-
age from glacier streams), of such extreme minuteness as not
to settle even when the water is allowed to stand for a Ion
time. Professor Tyndall furthermore states that not only is
the light mainly blue from the first moment of its reflection
from the minute particles, tout the less refrangible elements
which always accompany the blue are still further abstract-
ed during the transmission of the scattered light by true
molecular absorption. These two causes, scattering and ab-
sorption, he considers sufficient to account satisfactorily for
the exceptional blueness of both the Lake of Geneva and of
the Mediterranean Sea. 12 A, October 20, 487.

BOILING POINT OF UNMISCIBLE LIQUIDS.

Mr. Kundt announces in Pogro-endorff's "Annalen" that
where two liquids having different boiling points are brought
together, that do not combine w T ith each other, as, for exam-
ple, water and benzole, water and oil of cloves, water and
sulphide of carbon, etc., they will boil at a lower tempera-
ture than when the more volatile of these liquids is brought
to ebullition by itself. This fact may be placed side by side
with that lately published, that a liquid having a boiling
point higher than that of water can be brought to boil by
steam applied through pipes in a suitable manner. 1 A,
October 14,191.

ACOUSTIC PHENOMENA ON MOUNT SINAI.

Captain Palmer gave an account to the British Association
of a remarkable acoustic phenomenon on a certain mountain
in the peninsula of Mount Sinai, from which loud and myste-
rious noises are frequently known to proceed. This mountain
is a peculiar sand-slope, about two hundred feet high, and
nearly triangular in shape, eighty yards wide at the base,
narrowing toward the top, where it runs off into three or four

48 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

small gulleys. Sandstone cliffs bound it on each side. The
sand is of a pale yellowish color, and is so pure and fine, and
so perfectly dry, and at the same time lies at so high an angle
(nearly 30) with the horizon as to be set in motion by the
slightest cause. When any considerable quantity is thus in
motion, rolling slowly down the slope like some viscous fluid,
then the singular acoustic phenomenon is heard, from .which
the mountain derives its name at first a deep, swelling, vi-
bratory moan, rising gradually to a dull roar, loud enough
when at its height to be almost startling, and then as gradu-
ally dying away till the sand ceases to roll. Captain Palmer
states that it is difficult to describe this sound exactly. It is
not metallic, nor like the sound*of a bell, nor yet that of a
gong ; perhaps the very hoarsest note of an JEolian harp, or
the sound produced by rubbing the wet rim of a deep-toned
finger-glass most closely resembles it, except that the rolling
sand has less music in it. It may be likened to the noise pro-
duced by air rushing into the mouth of an empty metal flask
or bottle, sometimes almost approaching the roar of thunder,
and then resembling the deeper notes of a violoncello or the
hum of a humming-top. In the course of tw T o days' experi-
ments, Captain Palmer ascertained that the hot surface-sand
was always more productive of sound than the cooler layers
underneath, the hot particles appearing to run more quickly
than the cold. 15 A, August 19, 246.

NEW FORM OF SENSITIVE FLxIE.

Some of our readers are familiar with the interesting phys-
ical fact that certain flames are exceedingly sensitive to
sound, and have seen notices of the experiments of Professor
Tyndall and Professor Pepper, in London, upon this subject.
Quite recently, according to Nature, a new form of sensitive
flame has been devised by Mr. Barry, of Cork, which is said
to be the most easily affected one known, possessing the ad-
vantage that the ordinary pressure in a gas-main is quite suf-
ficient to develop it. The method of producing it consists in
igniting the ordinary coal-gas, not at the burner, but some,
inches above it, by interposing between the burner and the
flame a piece of wire gauze of about thirty-two meshes to the
inch. A pin-hole burner is used, so as to produce a conical
flame.

C. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND SOUND. 49

The gauze should be held steadily about two inches above
the burner, by means of a retort-stand. The flame is a slen-
der cone about four inches high, the upper portion giving a
bright yellow light, the base being a non-luminous blue flame.
At the least noise this flame roars, sinking down to the sur-
face of the gauze, becoming at the same time almost invis-
ible. It is very active in its responses, and being rather a
noisy flame, its sympathy is apparent to the ear as well as to
the eye.

To the vowel sounds it does not seem to answer so dis-
criminately as the vowel flame of Professor Tyndall. It is
extremely sensitive to , very slightly to e, more so to i, en-
tirely insensitive to 0, but slightly sensitive to u. It dances
in the most perfect manner to a small musical snuff-box, and
is highly sensitive to most of the sonorous vibrations which
affect the vowel flame, though it possesses some points of dif-
ference. 12 A, November 9,1871,30.

HEAT OP COMBUSTION OF STONE-COAL.

In a careful inquiry upon the heat of combustion of stone-
coal by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier, the conclusion was
reached that during the formation of coal a certain quantity
of heat must have been absorbed, since the theoretical heat
of combustion was always less than that actually observed.
In our entire ignorance of the constitution of coal, it is im-
possible, however, according to the authors, to determine the
nature of this absorption. It would furthermore appear that,
from our want of knowledge of the composition of coal, we
can not calculate the heat of combustion. Two coals of pre-
cisely the same chemical composition may and do afford very
different degrees of heat in combustion. 18 C, xxxiii., Aug-
ust 16,1871,523.

ON HEAT EVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF AQUEOUS SOLU-
TIONS.

In a memoir by Mohr upon the heat evolved in the forma-
tion of aqueous solutions, it is stated that the fall of temper-
ature occasioned by the solution of salt in water, or by mix-
ing salt with snow, is to be ascribed to a change in the state
of aggregation. Referring, however, to the fact that a fall
of temperature is observed when an aqueous solution of com-

C

50 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

mon salt is mixed with an additional quantity of water, when
no liquefaction takes place, he remarks that this explanation
does not account for the loss of heat, but that part of the
heat disappears and becomes latent, or enters the body in
such a manner as to give rise to a new and permanent qual-
ity, namely, lower freezing-point. 21 A, IX.,7i^y, 1871, 475.

OPPOSITE CURRENTS OF ELECTRICITY.

It is stated by the London Athenceum that Mr. C. F. Var-
ley, the well-known electrician, has devised a method by
which four currents of electricity can be delivered simulta-
neously by a single wire, even in opposite directions.

ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON GASES TRAVERSED BY ELECTRICAL

CURRENTS.

In a paper by MM. A. de la Rive and E. Sarasin, in the Bib-
liotheque Universelle, the following conclusions are announced
as the result of a long series of experiments upon the action
of magnetism on gases traversed by electrical currents: 1.
The action of magnetism exerted upon a portion only of an
electric jet traversing a rarefied gas causes an augmentation
of density in this portion. 2. This action exerted upon an
electric jet placed equatorially between the poles of an .elec-
tro-magnet produces in the rarefied gas an augmentation of
resistance proportional to the conductivity of the gas itself.
3. On the contrary, it causes a corresponding diminution of
resistance when the jet is axially between the two magnetic
poles. 4. When the action of the magnetism is to impress a
continuous movement of rotation upon the electric jet, it has
no influence upon the conductivity if the rotation be in the
plane perpendicular to the axis of the iron cylinder detaining
the rotation, and diminishes it considerably if the rotation
takes place so that the jet describes a cylinder round the
axis. 5. These effects do not seem to be due to variations of
density, but to perturbations in the arrangement of the par-
ticles of the rarefied gas. 12 A, July 20,230.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 51

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.

ALUMINIUM FOR SMALL WEIGHTS.

Dr. Phipson recomrnends very warmly the employment of
aluminium in the manufacture of very small weights. The
advantages, as set forth by him, are their immunity from the
inconvenience attaching; to the use of brass weights in a
chemical laboratory, in retaining their brilliancy untarnished,
and in not losing their value by oxidation. The much great-
er bulk occupied by a given weight, as compared with brass
or other metal, enables one to handle them much more read-
ily, and a considerably smaller weight can be used, without
inconvenience, than has been generally thought practicable
in such cases. A set used by Dr. Phipson contains fourteen
weights, from half a gramme to one and a half milligrammes,
the latter (less than the one fortieth of a grain) not being
very easily handled when made of any other metal. 1 A,
October 14,187.

RUSTING OF IRON.

Professor Calvert, after repeated experiments, has found
that pure dry oxygen does not determine the oxidation of
iron, and that moist oxygen has but feeble action ; also that
dry or moist pure carbonic acid has no action, but that when
moist oxygen containing traces of carbonic acid is brought
into contact with iron, the latter rusts with great rapidity.
He concludes, therefore, that carbonic acid is the agent which
determines the oxidation of iron, and that it is the presence
of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, and not its oxygen or its
watery vapor, that produces the oxidation of iron exposed to
common air. In one experiment he found that if clean blades
of the best quality of iron be placed in water which has been
well boiled, and deprived of its oxygen and carbonic acid,
they will not rust for several weeks ; and that if a similar
blade be half immersed in a bottle containing equal volumes
of pure distilled water and oxygen, the portion clipping in
the water becomes rapidly oxidized, while the upper portion
remains unaltered. But if to the atmosphere be added some

52 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

carbonic acid, chemical reaction on the exposed joortion, with
rapid oxidation, takes place immediately.

In reference to the fact, first published by Berzelius, that
caustic alkalies prevent the oxidation of iron, he remarks, as
the result of special experiments on this subject, that the car-
bonates and bicarbonates of the alkalies possess the same
property as their hydrates ; and that i an iron blade be half
immersed in a solution of such carbonates, they exercise such
a preservative influence on that portion of the bar which is
exposed to the atmosphere or common air (oxygen and car-
bonic acid) that it does not oxidize even after a period of
two years. 1 A, March 3, 98.

HYDEATE OF CHLOEAL FOE EEDUCING METALS.

Hydrate of chloral may in many cases, according to a Ger-
man pharmaceutical journal, be conveniently applied to the
reduction of precious metals. For this purpose a solution of
gold, platinum, etc., is mixed with hydrate of chloral and an
excess of caustic potash or soda, and the whole heated to-
gether. After boiling for about one minute the reduction is
complete, and the precipitate is easily washed. In the case
of silver the action is especially satisfactory, but solutions of
salts of mercury are not reduced. 14 (7, 1871, vi., 513.

EEDUCTION OF NATIVE SULPHIDES.

Native sulphides of metals often occur of much value in a
metallurgical point of view, but which can not be reduced in
consequence of the great scarcity of fuel. Dr. Kopp, in a re-
cent paper, mentions the results of a series of experiments
upon such substances, for the purpose of ascertaining wheth-
er certain cheap and abundant chemical reagents can be made
to act upon the minerals in question (without at the same
time affecting their gangue), so as to bring them into a con-
dition fit for being readily converted into metals. The re-
agents named as suitable for the purpose in question are
common salt, chloride of iron, and hydrochloric acid. In this
paper it is stated that the most economical method of ex-
tracting the small quantity of copper present in previously
burned pyrites consists in first exposing the burned substance
to heat and moisture, and then pouring over the material a
solution of common salt. A small addition of hvdrochloric

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 53

acid is useful, and the copper in this way becomes converted
into a soluble chloride. 5 A, October, 1870, 424.

REDUCTION OF ORES BY CHLORIDE OF IRON.

A method of reducing ores by means of chloride of iron has
recently been patented, which is specially adapted to the ex-
traction of metals alloyed with sulphur, arsenic, or antimony.
The process depends upon the fact that chloride of iron, in
the presence of air and water, readily decomposes sulphur,
arsenic, and antimonial combinations, iron or copper pyrites,
the sulphurets of cobalt, nickel, sulphuret of antimony, lead,
silver, etc. The chloride of iron is reduced to chloruret of
iron, and the metals transferred into chlorides, the chloruret
of iron being* again changed to chloride by the influence of
the oxygen of the atmosphere, etc. If among the ores to be
manipulated there be too little sulphur, it is well to add,
from time to time, a little free acid, such as nitric, in order to
assist the reconstitution of the chloride of iron. With iron
or copper pyrites it is only necessary to add common salt,
since the sulphur of the ore is oxidized by means of the chlo-
ride of iron and atmospheric air, with the result of producing
sulphate of iron or sulphate of copper. 13 C, 1871, Jime 1,
11., 714.

COLOROMETRIC DETERMINATION OF GOLD IN QUARTZ.

A process for the colorometric estimation of the quantity
of gold in quartz has been submitted by Mr. Skey, of the gov-
ernment laboratory, to the Philosophical Society of Welling-
ton, New Zealand, which is said to meet all requirements
without the necessity of using quicksilver. The stone to be
estimated, after having been thoroughly crushed and calcined,
is immersed in a bath of iodine or bromine, and permitted to
stand for some time. Slips of Swedish filtering-paper are
then dipped in the fluid and dried alternately until the paper
is thoroughly saturated, after which they are burned in a
muffle. If no gold be present the ashes will be white, but
one pennyweight to the ton will give them a beautiful pur-
ple color. It is believed that further experiments, with io-
dine or bromine baths, of known contents of gold, will enable
the exact proportion of gold to be tested by the colorometric
method. 8 A, October 1,181.

54 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

NOX-AMALGAMABLE GOLD.

The attention of Mr. Skey, of the Geological Survey of
New Zealand, was called to a reported loss of gold during
the process of extraction by mercury, and he found, on care-
ful examination, that numerous samples of bright, clean-look-
ing gold of two degrees of fineness refused to amalgamate on
any part of their natural surfaces, and he ascertained by ex-
periment that on such surfaces sulphur- is always present.
He also found that native pure gold will readily absorb sul-
phur from moist sulphuret of hydrogen or sulphide of ammo-
nium, and that surfaces so treated refuse to amalgamate, al-'
though exhibiting no aj)parent change in their surfaces. He
shows, however, that by roasting in an open fire, or by bring-
ing it in contact with cyanide of potassium, chromic and ni-
tric acid, and chloride of lime acidified, gold so affected is
rendered amalgamable, unless copper be present to the ex-
tent of seven per cent., or perhaps less. 1 A, 1870, 282.

THIRD SILVER ALLOY.

An alloy, known as the Alliage tiers argent, or third silver
alloy, has been assayed, and has been ascertained to be com-
posed of copper, 59.06 parts ; silver, 27.56 ; zinc, 9.57 ; nickel,
3.44, making a total of 99.63 parts. Its external color is pre-
cisely similar to that of pure silver, but on the fracture, which
is finely granular, the color is light yellow, with a shade into
reddish. 13 C, August 11,1222.

TESTING SILVERY COATING OF METALS.

It is sometimes a matter of interest to be able to determine,
by means of a simple test, the nature of a silvery coating to
a metal, whether it be pure silver or some other substance.
This is said to be readily accomplished by the use of a cold
saturated solution of bichromate of potash in pure nitric acid,
of one and two tenths specific gravity. The- surface of the
article to be tested is to be first washed with strong alcohol,
so as to remove any lacquering, and then a drop of the solu-
tion applied by means of a glass rod, the place affected being
immediately after rinsed oft* with water. If the substance in
question be silver, a distinct blood-red spot of chromate of
silver will be perceived. The spot is brown on German sil-

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 55

ver, and after rinsing shows no trace of red. With Britannia
(composed of tin, antimony, and a little copper) a black spot
will be developed, but no effect will be seen with platinum.
Upon a surface amalgamated with mercury a reddish-brown
deposit will be perceived, which is completely washed away
on rinsing. With lead and bismuth a yellow deposit remains.
Zinc becomes strongly etched, the liquid, however, disappear-
ing completely on rinsing. Tin is attacked also very decided-
ly, but the test liquid imparts a brownish color, and an addi-
tion of water produces a yellow deposit which readily attach-
es itself to the metal. 8 (7, 1870, 411.

EXTRACTION OF COPPER FROM REFUSE PYRITES.

The copper-mining industry of Cornwall is said, according
to the At/iencqum, to be suffering from a new form of compe-
tition. Iron pyrites, it is stated, is now imported in immense
quantities from Sweden and Norway for the manufacture of
sulphuric acid, and, after the sulphur is extracted, is operated
upon for the two per cent, of copper which it contains. About
4000 tons of metal were obtained in 1869 from this source,
while the entire yield from the native ores the same year was
only about 8000 tons. 14 C, CO., 242.

PHOSPHORUS IX BROXZE.

An improved method of manufacturing bronze consists in
introducing phosphorus in some form during the process of
melting the copper, tin, or other metals which form the basis
of the compounds, the effect being to very greatly improve
the quality as regards elasticity, hardness, and toughness.
8 A, January, 1871, No. 6.

FLUID ALLOY OF SODIUM AXD POTASSIUM.

It is stated that if 4 parts of sodium are mixed with 2^ of
potassium, the alloy will have exactly the appearance and
consistency of mercury, remaining liquid at the ordinary tem-
perature of the air. 1 A, August 5, 72.

MALLEABLE BROXZE.

It is said that, in consequence of the announcements made
some months ago before the Academy of Sciences of Paris in
reference to the subject of malleable bronze, this substance is

56 AS X UAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

now likely to come into practical use in European and Amer-
ican art. The existence of such a substance has long been
known from specimens of very ancient origin, and from its
use by the Chinese in the construction of their tom-toms. It
may be prepared from bell-metal bronze, to which twenty per
cent, of tin has been added, and heating to a dark red. This
generally brittle metal thus becomes malleable, and can be
readily forged and rolled out from a thickness of three or
four millimetres to that of a half to a quarter of a millimetre.
In the operation the density of the metal is increased, and it
can be welded easily, preserving its entire homogeneity. The
whole secret rests in giving the bronze the proper degree of
heat, since without this it remains brittle. 8 (7, xxvn.,e7w/y
6,214.

COATING FABRICS WITH METAL.

For the purpose of coating fabrics and tissues with metal,
such as copper, silver, and gold, the material is first to be im-
pregnated with a solution of sulphate of copper in ammonia,
and then dried. After drying, the whole is immersed in a
warm solution of grape sugar, which develops oxide of cop-
per, upon which silver or gold can be electroplated in the
usual way. 13 (7, 1870, 367.

COATING ZINC WITH IRON.

According to C. Puscher, of Nuremberg, zinc utensils may
be durably coated with iron in the following manner: Five
ounces of pure sulphate of iron and three ounces of sal am-
moniac are first dissolved in five pounds of boiling water, and
the objects to be treated immediately immersed. After from
one to two minutes, the loose black deposit is removed by
brushing it off with water. The principal effect of this opera-
tion is a perfect cleaning of the surface. The immersion in
the hot iron solution is then repeated, with the difference that
the objects when taken out are heated, without rinsing, over
a pan of live coals as long as the ammoniacal vapors are
evolved. When, after several immersions, the coating is con-
sidered thick enough, it is polished by brushing, and will ever
afterward be a perfect protection against oxidation. It im-
parts a fine black lustre to the coated surfaces. 14 G CC, 47.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 57

ELECTROPLATING WITH NICKEL.

An important improvement in the electroplating of metal-
lic objects with nickel has been patented by Mr. Adams, of
Boston, and is now worked in several of our cities with much
success, the result being to give to a* great variety of articles,
such as knives, forks, surgical and dental instruments, stair-
rods, andirons, students' lamps, plumbers' materials, etc., a
coating resembling polished steel, and quite as hard, and
which is proof against ordinary oxidizing or other 'influences,
retaining a high polish for a long period of time.

The special feature of Mr. Adams's invention, and that
upon which the patent mainly rests, consists in the exclusion
of the smallest quantity of potash, soda, or other alkaline
earth from the bath containing the nickelizing preparation ;
pure double chloride of nickel and ammonium, or the perfect-
ly pure sulphate of nickel and ammonia, and perfectly pure
nickel being also required, as one of the electrodes, the nickel
adhering regularly and strongly in consequence, and only
needing polishing after the metal coated over is taken from
the bath.

It seems, however, that this precaution, as indicated by Mr.
Adams, is not necessary, and that the general process may be
prosecuted by any one without infringement of the patent,
as, according to M. Becquerel, potassa in no way affects in-
juriously the deposition of nickel, since the double sulphate
of nickel and potassa can be applied as well as the double
sulphate of nickel and ammonia ; but if the positive electrode
is not made of nickel, it is necessary to add free ammonia in
order to saturate the sulphuric acid which is set free. 8 A,
October 1, 185.

NICKEL AND COBALT PLATING IN THE WET WAY.

Professor Stolba, of the polytechnic laboratory of the Poly-
technicon of Prague, a chemist who has been the first to an-
nounce to the world several important technical discoveries,
especially in reference to the plating of metals, has just pub-
lished, in Dingler's Polytechnic Journal, an article upon the
method of coating metals of all kinds with nickel and cobalt
in the wet way, or by boiling ; and he thinks that it will be
quite possible to imitate the effect of, and even to furnish a

C2

58 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

satisfactory substitute for, the method by electroplating,
which lias lately come so generally into use.

The value of nickel plating is, of course, well understood,
and it is now very much used wherever polished iron or brass
is liable to corrode, as is particularly the case in the vicinity
of salt water. In large -yachts, where expense is no consid-
eration, all the metal work, as also the machinery of sea-going
steamers, is often treated in this way ; a notable instance of
which may be seen in the yacht Resolute, a splendid vessel
lately built for Mr. A. S. Hatch, of New York.

The details of Professor Stolba's process are too compli-
cated for our pages ; but we may say, in general terms, that
it depends upon the action of salts of nickel in tlie presence
of chloride of zinc and of the metal to be coated. The sub-
stances required are : first, a suitable vessel for conducting
the operation, which may be of porcelain or metal ; second, a
suitable salt of nickel, which may be either chloride, sulphate,
or the sulphate of nickel and potassa ; third, a solution of chlo-
ride of zinc ; fourth, clippings of sheet zinc or zinc wire and
powdered zinc ; fifth, pure hydrochloric acid. Cobaltizing,
as Professor Stolba terms it, is conducted in very much the
same way a salt of cobalt being used in place of the salt
of nickel. 14 C, CCL, 145.

ELECTROPLATING METAL WITH NICKEL OR COBALT.

A process devised by Mr. ISPagel, of Hamburg, for coating
iron, steel, and other oxidizable metals with an electro de-
posit of nickel or cobalt consists in taking 400 parts, by
weight, of pure sulphate of the protoxide of nickel by crys-
tallization, and 200 parts, by weight, of pure ammonia, so as
to form a double salt, which is then dissolved in G000 parts
of distilled water, and 1200 parts of ammoniacal solution, of
the specific gravity of 0.909, added. The electro deposit is
effected by an ordinary galvanic current, using a platinum
positive pole, the solution being heated to about 100 Fahr-
enheit. The strength of the galvanic current is regulated
according to the number of objects to be coated. For coat-
ing with cobalt, 138 parts, by weight, of pure sulphate of co-
balt are combined with 69 parts of pure ammonia, to form a
double salt, which is then dissolved in 1000 parts of distilled
water, and 120 parts of ammoniacal solution, of the same spe-

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 59

cific gravity as before, are added. The process of deposi-
tion with cobalt is the same as with nickel. 3- A, August
12,112.

RAPID METHOD OF TINNING.

A valuable recipe for tinning copper, brass, and iron in the
coftl, and without complicated apparatus, has recently been
published by Prof. Stolba, of Prague. A prerequisite is that
the article to be tinned be perfectly free from oxide or grease
of any kind, it being necessary that the surface be cleaned in
the most careful manner, although it is immaterial whether
this be done by mechanical or chemical means, so that the
desired object be effected.

The substances used in the process are, first, powdered zinc,
which may be the ordinary zinc dust, called sometimes zinc
gray, but that w T hich is prepared expressly for the purpose
will be best. For this it is only necessary to melt some pure
zinc, and pour it into a previously warmed iron mortar. As
soon as it has become hardened it can be readily pulverized,
and should then be freed from its coarser grains by sifting.
The proper fineness is that of ordinary writing-sand.

The next ingredient is a five to ten per cent, solution of the
salt of tin (simple chloride of tin), to which is to be added as
much powdered cream of tartar as can be taken up on the
point of a knife. Next is required a piece of sponge, or a pad
of some kind. The process of tinning is extremely simple.
The pad is first to be dipped in the solution of salt of tin, and
applied to the object to be tinned, so as to moisten it thor-
oughly. A small quantity of the zinc powder having been
spread out on a glass plate, a portion of this powder is then
to be taken up by the pad, and quickly and firmly rubbed
upon the article in hand. The tinning makes its appearance
almost immediately, and, in order that the surface may be
coated uniformly, it is only necessary to dip the pad alter-
nately into the solution of tin (which is to be kept in a little
dish) and into the zinc powder, and then to apply it. After
the operation is completed, which, for small objects, requires
only one or two minutes, the article is to be washed off in
water, and then cleaned with Tripoli, or polishing powder.
The effect of this application upon polished brass or copper is
extremely beautiful, the surface resembling silver, and keep-

60 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ing its lustre for a long time. The author of the process has
applied it to great advantage in his laboratory for the pur-
pose of coating articles of iron, steel, and copper, thereby pro-
jecting them against rust. One difficulty in tke process re-
sults from the fact that only a very thin layer of tin can be
applied. Should it become practicable to impart a thicker
coating, it will probably acquire great importance. Exp'eri-
ments upon nickelizing metallic substances in a similar man-
ner are in course of progress by the author, although thus far
without satisfactory result. 1 4 C^CX-CVIII., December 4, 308.
We learn that Professor Stolba's experiments have been re-
peated with much success. The tinning of cast-iron, wrought
iron, steel, copper, and brass is found to be very satisfactory,
the tin adhering very firmly, even when in very thin layers.
Diluted sulphuric acid, however, it is said, generally produced
dark spots and removed the coating. Experiments have been
made to apply the same process for the ornamentation of me-
tallic objects. These were tried especially upon cast-iron ar-
ticles electroplated with copper, where the projecting edges
were tinned, with excellent effect. As greasy spots can not
be tinned, it is only necessary to apply very thin layers of oil
to the places where no deposit is desired in order to coat the
remainder of the article with tin, thus producing a striking
contrast. 6 C, v., 49.

GALVANOPLASTIC COPIES FROM ORGANIC MATRICES.

The usual method of obtaining galvanoplastic plates from
matrices of an organic nature consists in either coating the
surface with graphite or a powdery deposit of silver, or else
imparting conductivity by sulphide of silver. These methods
are only suitable for rough work, since the delicate gelatine
reliefs produced in the operation are decidedly affected by the
sprinkling of the substances mentioned, which destroy the
sharpness of the detail. It is, therefore, much better to pro-
duce a deposit of silver directly upon the gelatine in the sun-
light, which, in consequence of the presence of an organic
substance, will be in a state of purity, and attached uniformly
and continuously upon the surface. For this purpose the
gelatine relief sheet is to be fixed to a glass plate by means
of copal varnish, and allowed to remain for an hour in a con-
centrated solution of tannin, in order to render it insoluble in

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 61

water. It is then immersed in a silver bath until the entire
surface of the relief is moistened. A copper wire, bent at
right angles, is now to be moved over the horizontal surface
of the object so as to touch the surface when placed in the
sunlight. The silver is then deposited in the form .of little
rays upon the copper wire, and becomes a lustrous continuous
coating upon that portion of the object touched by the cop-
per. The plate is next to be taken out as horizontally as pos-
sible from the solution, and laid in the sunlight to dry. The
superfluous silver is then to be washed off with water, leaving
behind a silvery layer, which is an excellent conductor of the
galvanic current, so that a satisfactory result will be obtained
with a small amount of electricity. 14 (7, C, 315.

GILDIXG AND SILVERING SILK.

According to a formula published by Grtine for silvering
or gilding silk, the silk is to be soaked with a five per cent,
solution of iodide of potassium, and dried; then (in non-ac-
tinic light) dipped in a five per cent, solution of nitrate of
silver, containing a few drops of nitric acid, and well drain-
ed; next exposed for a few minutes to sunlight, and then
dipped in a two per cent, solution of sulphate of iron. It
immediately becomes gray from reduction of metallic silver,
and, after washing and drying, only requires burnishing in
order to acquire the metallic lustre. By repeating this treat-
ment, varied, however, by adding a little free iodine to the
solution of iodide of potassium, the silver deposit becomes
stronger. By laying the silvered silk in a very weak solution
of chloride of gold the silver becomes chloride, and gold is
deposited ; and by then removing the chloride of silver by a
solution of hyposulphite of soda, lvashing, drying, and bur-
nishing, the appearance of gilding is produced, if the deposit
of metal be sufficiently thick. The purest chemicals must
be used in order to secure satisfactory results. Jour. Chem.
/Soc. Lonely 1871, Jime, 450.

MICROSCOPIC CHARACTER OF IRON AXD STEEL.

According to Mr. Schott, the different qualities of iron and
steel can readily be distinguished by means of the micro-
scope. Thus the crystals of iron are double pyramids, in
which the proportion of the axes to the bases varies with the

62 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

quality of the iron. The smallness of the crystals, and the
height of the pyramids composing each element, are in pro-
portion to the quality and density of the metal, which are
seen also in the fineness of the surface. As the proportion
of the carbon diminishes in the steel, the pyramids have so
much the less height.

In pig-iron, and the lower qualities of hard steel, the crys-
tals approach more closely the cubic form. Forged iron has
its pyramids flattened and reduced to superposed parallel
leaves, whose structure constitutes what is called the nerve
of the steel. The best quality of steel has all its crystals
disposed in parallel lines, each crystal filling in the interstices
between the angles of those adjoining. These crystals have
their axes in the direction of the percussion they undergo
during the working. Practically, good steel, examined under
the microscope, has the appearance of large groups of beau-
tiful crystals, similar to the points of needles, all parallel and
disposed in the same direction. 8 A, September 1, 168.

PURIFICATION OF IRON BY SODIUM.

A method recently suggested for freeing iron from its del-
eterious impurities consists in first forming an alloy of the
iron with one of the alkaline metals, either sodium or potas-
sium, which is done by forcing the vapor of either into a
mass of molten iron. To do this with the pure metal would,
of course, be inexpedient, on account of the expense; but the
same result may, it is said, be obtained by saturating the coal
or coke used to reduce the iron with a solution of carbonate
of soda, and drying it before it goes into the furnace, or by
adding common salt to the fluxing materials. Sodium will,
it is asserted, enter into combination with the iron in either
case. This, perhaps, is somewhat questionable. The alloy,
when prepared, is to be melted, and a current of moist air, or
moist carbonic oxide, sent through it. Decomposition en-
sues, and the alkaline metal combines readily with any met-
alloid, such as silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus, removing them
from their mixture, and leaving a pure iron under some cir-
cumstances, and pure steel under others. 8 A, July, 129.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 63

HEATON STEEL.

A French investigator, in the course of certain experiments
upon steel prepared by the Heaton process which, it ap-
pears, contains a rather larger proportion of phosphorus than
the Bessemer steel concludes that phosphorus, in a quantity
of from two to four thousandths in steel, causes the metal to
be rigid, and, while tending to increase the elasticity and re-
sistance to breaking, does not modify the hardness. Such
steel, however, he thinks, is wanting in real strength and
toughness, being brittle, and not sustaining sudden shocks.
His general conclusion is that even very small quantities of
phosphorus, when present in steel, not only do not improve
it, as has been asserted, but actually deteriorate it. The best
method of estimating the percentage of phosphorus in steel
is said to be the examination of the spectrum produced by
the combustion of hydrogen obtained by the action of chlo-
rohydric acid upon the metal. 1 A,3farch 25, 142.

PREPARATION OF BAR-IRON FROM PHOSPHURETED CAST-IRON.

In view of the great eminence of the Mining Academy at
Freiburg as a school for instruction in practical metallurgy
and mining, it may be of interest to know that one of its pro-
fessors, T. Scheerer, has lately announced that he has discov-
ered a method by which an excellent bar-iron may be pre-
pared from cast-iron containing any amount of phosphorus.
The expense of the process (which is not at all complicated
nor very peculiar) is said to be trifling, and the discovery
must be considered of the utmost value to workers in iron.
Although it has been patented in various countries, the dis-
coverer is quite willing to place it at the service of iron-mas-
ters throughout the world at a very moderate rate. With-
out as yet announcing his terms, he invites all persons inter-
ested to visit the establishment in Germany, where iron is at
present being manufactured according to the new method.
14 (7,CC,,242.

BERARD PROCESS FOR MAKING STEEL.

Many methods have been indicated of late years for man-
ufacturing steel direct from pig-iron, that of Bessemer being
well known, and worked in a great many establishments in

64 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Europe and America. According to the Mechanics' Maga-
zine, a rival to this method is to be found in the system of
Berard, as adopted at the steel-works in Givors, in France.
The principal features of this are, first, the employment of
gas, acting at once as a heating and reacting agent in im-
proving the quality of the iron by a partial purification, be-
fore throwing off such injurious bodies as sulphur, phospho-
rus, arsenic, etc. ; second, the ability to employ iron of a sec-
ondary quality to obtain steel for certain special purposes,
as rails, tires, etc. ; third, by the combined action of air and
gas, in being able to act alternately by means of oxidation
and reduction in keeping the waste at a minimum, and by
decarbonizing and recarbonizing, to regulate at will, and with
certainty, the nature of the product to be obtained.

The details of the method are too technical to be given
here, although the results are recommended by their excel-
lence and the economy in cost in obtaining them. The op-
eration requires from an hour to an hour and a half, and the
process is so conducted that the manipulation can be arrested
at any moment, and any desired quality of steel obtained.
3 A, IBll, April 1, 233.

THEORY OF BESSEMER AND HE AXON STEEL PROCESSES.

In the course of certain remarks respecting the production
of artificial charcoal iron, Mr. Berthault observes that both
Bessemer and Heaton base their systems upon the purifica-
tion of the pigs by oxidizing reaction, either of nitrate of
soda or of nitrate of potash ; but, referring to the quantities
of alkaline salts contained in various fuels, Mr. Berthault re-
marks that the results appear to prove that soda or potash
salts, thrown into the blast-furnace at the same time as the
ore and fuel, would give with coke or other mineral fuel a
metal closely resembling charcoal iron, and even a steely pig.
Every thing will depend upon the quantity of soda or of pot-
ash added, and he contends that the best salt to employ is
the neutral carbonate of potash, such as is obtained from
vegetable sources, and commonly known as pearlash. To
obtain iron of uniform quality in the blast-furnace, it is de-
si rable to mix the salt with some glutinous liquids, such as
blood and water, and dampen the coke with it. 8 A, April
1,65.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 65

GRAPHITE IN GRAY OXIDE OF IRON.

From recent investigations of Sneller, we are informed that
the graphite segregated in gray oxide of iron consists of pure
carbon, but that there is no free graphite-like silicon associ-
ated with it, although some occurs in combination. The
quantity of carbon which remains enveloped in the harden-
ing of a fluid cast-iron appears to be dependent on the pro-
portion in which the carbon was dissolved in the liquid iron,
and upon the rapidity with which the transformation took
place from the liquid to the solid state, rather than upon the
quantity of foreign elements, such as manganese, sulphur,
phosphorus, silicon, etc., thus not upon the height of the tem-
perature at which the iron was treated. While in puddling,
nearly all the silicon is burned before the carbon becomes
oxidized, this process of oxidation in the Bessemer method
comes on about equally with the two elements, if not even
more rapidly with the silicon. The remarkable fact that the
same amount of silica which makes the Bessemer and cast
steel cold-short does not affect the quality of wrought iron
under all conditions appears to depend upon the circumstance
that steel contains the silica in a state of chemical combina-
tion, while in wrought iron it only occurs as a slag. 1 8 (7,
xi., August 2, 493.

FORMATION OF PLUMBAGO.

The presence of plumbago in gneiss, mica slate, clay slate,
granular limestone, etc., according to Dr. R.Wagner, is de-
pendent upon the chemical reaction of the decomposition of
cyanogen and its combinations. This is illustrated, and in a
measure proved, in Dr. Wagner's opinion, by the formation
*of graphite, as has been seen to take place in Le Blanc's soda
manufactory. At a certain sta^e of the transformation of the
soda into caustic soda cyanogen undergoes a decomposition,
and graphite, or plumbago, is developed in abundance upon
the surface of the lye. The amount produced is so great as
to have suggested a source for graphite in the manufacture
of lead-pencils, should the mines of the natural material ever*
fail. Quite large masses of this graphite are obtained as a
secondary product of the soda-works in a chemical establish-
ment at Aussig, in Bohemia. 14 C, CXCVIIL, 176.

G6 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

DETERMINATION OF CARBON IN STEEL.

Mr. Hermann considers that the usual method of determin-
ing carbon in steel by the colometric process of Eggertz is
not reliable, especially when the amount of carbon is large
and needs to be ascertained with accuracy, but comes to the
conclusion that the direct burning of iron in a stream of oxy-
gen is the most expeditious and accurate method. 15 A,
June 24,841.

ACETATE OP ZINC A PRECIPITATE FOR HiEMIN.

Gunning has discovered in acetate of zinc a reagent that

CD O

precipitates the slightest traces of the coloring matter of
blood from solutions, even where the liquids are so dilute as
to be colorless. Blood washed from the hands in a pail of
water can readily be detected in this way. The flocculent
precipitate thrown down by acetate of zinc must be washed
by decantation, and finally collected on a watch-glass and
allowed to dry, when the microscope will readily reveal hre-
min crystals if any blood be present. 16 A, July, 1871, 401.

HYDROGEN GAS.

A new process, it is stated, has recently been discovered
for obtaining hydrogen gas in large quantities. Alkaline
earths are heated with coke or charcoal to a red heat, when
carbonic acid hydrogen are freely eliminated. The carbonic
acid is absorbed by water, and the pure hydrogen is collected
in a separate reservoir.

ABSORPTION OF GAS BY IRON.

According to M. Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, iron obtained by
galvanic dejDOsit possesses the peculiarity of being so hard as"
to scratch glass and to be very brittle ; but when heated, its
color becomes deeper, its hardness and brittleness are lost,
and its specific gravity considerably increased. This fact led
the experimenter to believe that the iron, as at first deposited,
might contain gas in its substance, and on heating a small'
* quantity carefully nearly eighteen volumes of gas, chiefly hy-
drogen, were driven off and collected. 5 A; 1870, 101.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 67

ABSORPTION OF GAS BY CHARCOAL UNDER INCREASED

PRESSURE.

Mr. Hunter, of London, has lately shown that the quantity
of gas absorbed by charcoal increases with the amount of
pressure to which it is exposed, and that equal variation in
pressure produces nearly equal variation in the quantity of
the absorbed gas. 16 C',1871, 118.

ABSORBENT POWERS OF CHARCOAL.

Dr. Herman nVohl, of Cologne, has lately published an elab-
orate paper in the Archiv der JPharmacie upon the absorbent
power of charcoal and its application for disinfectant and de-
odorizing purposes, replete with suggestions of great impor-
tance.

Among other deductions from his experiments, he states
that the carbonic acid gas obtained by heating charcoal is
not derived from the coal itself, but has been absorbed from
the atmosphere, and is held with such tenacity that it can
not be driven out by boiling in water, but that a temperature
much below that of ignition is sufficient to expel it. This
conclusion is the same as that which had been reached by an-
other experimenter, to which we have previously made refer-
ence. Among other facts proving this statement, Dr. Vohl
remarks that when charcoal has been once freed from its car-
bonic acid and saturated with pure oxygen, no trace of car-
bonic acid is appreciable, even when heated to a temperature
of 680 Fahrenheit. 2 C.June 8,177.

ALKALINITY OF CARBONATE OF LIME.

According to Mr. Skey, of the Geological Survey of New
Zealand, carbonate of lime is alkaline rather than neutral, as
shown by the fact that when prepared by igniting pure oxa-
late of lime in a close crucible, at a dull red heat, it gives an
intense alkaline reaction with reddened litmus paper, after
moistening with water, or after reignition with pure carbon-
ate of ammonia ; carbonate of lime, prepared directly from
chloride of calcium and bicarbonate of soda, giving the same
reaction with test-paper. Other experiments are specified,
all tending to substantiate the same general proposition.
5 A.October, 1870, 423.

68 ANNUAL RECOKD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTKY.

MAXCAN'ESE IX BLOOD AND MILK.

According to Professor Pollatti, human blood contains man-
ganese as one of its essential elements ; and, concluding that
the same metal would be found in milk, he examined various
specimens of human milk, as also that of cows, goats, and oth-
er animals, and in every case he found unmistakable evidence
of the presence of this metal, the quantity in milk appearing
to be greater than that in an equal quantity of blood. 13-4,
June 11,237.

AQUEOUS SOLVENT FOR SULPHUR.

Various experiments have been made for the purpose of
finding an aqueous solvent for sulphur, this being considered
a very great desideratum in facilitating the use of this sub-
stance as a medicine. Dr. Pole announces that if flowers of
sulphur, previously well washed and dried at 2 12 Fahrenheit,
are mixed with an aqueous solution of pure anhydrous car-
bonate of soda, and the whole digested together at a temper-
ature of 212 for ten hours, an appreciable quantity of sulphur
will be taken up. Linseed oil is another solvent for sulphur,
the amount increasing with the increase of temperature.
1 A, October 28,214.

SOLIDIFICATION OF MELTED ROSIN.

Mr. Vincent, in remarking upon the readiness with which
broken ice resolidifies at temperatures above the freezing
point, calls attention to the same general principle seen in
other cases. Among these he cites rosin, which, when freed
from turpentine, and subjected to pressure in a melted condi-
tion, or otherwise, at ordinary temperatures, becomes com-
pletely pulverized, its particles showing no cohesive pow-
er whatever. If, however, the temperature of the rosin be
raised considerably above the melting point, on pressure be-
ing applied, a different result ensues, the mass becoming at
once solid at the core, the outside alone showing signs of
liquefaction. When rosin is melted for manufacturing pur-
poses, and the workmen neglect to stir it for even a few min-
utes, the whole mass becomes completely solidified, and lique-
faction takes place only at the exterior. From this and oth-
er instances stated by Mr. Vincent, he comes to the conclusion

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 69

that the disintegration produced by liquefaction of one por-
tion of the bodies referred to causes ^hem to exert a greater
power of aggregation in the parts less exposed to heat.
1 A, December 30, 313.

GUX-C0TT0N IX BISULPHIDE OF CAEBOX.

According to Dr. Bleekrode, if gun-cotton be first wet with
bisulphide of carbon (a highly inflammable liquid), and an
electric spark be passed through it, instead of producing an
explosion of the cotton, the bisulphide alone is set fire to, the
gun-cotton apparently remaining intact among the burning
bisulphide, presenting almost the aspect of a mass of snow
slowly melting away. The experiment may be varied by
using either benzine or alcohol instead of the bisulphide, and
igniting it afterward with any flame. All these liquids yield
the same result, and there is no danger in the experiment,
even if large quantities are used. This curious phenomenon
is explained by Dr. Abel, who says that " these results indi-
cate that if, even for the briefest space of time, the gases re-
sulting from the first action of heat on gun-cotton upon its
ignition in open air are impeded from completely enveloping
the burning extremity of the gun-cotton twist, their ignition
is prevented; and as it is the comparatively high tempera-
ture produced by their combustion which effects the rapid
and more complete combustion of the gun-cotton, the mo-
mentary extinction of the gases, and the continuous abstrac-
tion of heat by them as they escape from the point of com-
bustion, render it impossible for the gun-cotton to continue
to burn otherwise than in the slow and imperfect manner, un-
dergoing a transformation similar in character to destructive
distillation."

As a practical application of these facts, it is suggested that
if gun-cotton be kept in a flask in a layer of benzine or bisul-
phide of carbon, the danger of explosion in case of a fire is
obviated, since, if the liquid is ignited by any means, the gun-
cotton will burn slowly and gradually. When required for
use, a brief exposure to the air restores its explosive quali-
ties. London, Ediriburg, and Dublin Philoso^jhical Maga-
zine, January, 1871, 40.

TO ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

CHROME ALUM.

Much has been said, of late, of a substance known as
chrome alum, which has been used in the Albert and Edward
process of electrotype printing, for the purpose of hardening
the gelatine film and rendering it insoluble in water. In-
quiries have been pressed in various quarters for the recipe
lor preparing this substance, and we find in the Mechanics'
Magazine a reply, in which it is stated that if three ounces
of bichromate of potash be dissolved in as little boiling water
as possible, and then four ounces of strong sulphuric acid be
added, and afterward alcohol, drop by drop, be introduced, a
pure green tint will be developed. The liquid should be
stirred frequently during this process, and then boiled down
to a small volume and set aside. After a few days violet
crystals separate, which, when washed with pure water, are
said to be sufficiently pure for ordinary purposes. 18 A,
May 12,190.

IMPROVED TEST-PAPER.

A new test-paper of extreme sensitiveness can be prepared,
it is said, from the leaves of the ornamental plant known as
the Coleus verschaffelti. The fresh leaves of the plant are to
be steeped for twenty-four hours in absolute alcohol, to which
some drops of sulphuric acid have been added, and the liquid
afterward filtered. Into this are to be dipped strips of Swed-
ish filtering-paper, which are then allowed to dry in the air.
A test-paper of a beautiful red color will thus be obtained,
which will pass more or less into a fine shade of green by the
action of alkalies or alkaline earths. This paper will keep
for a long time if preserved in well-closed jars, and will be
found much more sensitive than the ordinary tests. It is not
affected by carbonic acids, but indicates the least trace of the
carbonates or alkaline earths that may be dissolved in water.
If a band of this paper, slightly moistened, be exposed to an
open gas jet, it will change rapidly to green, in consequence
of the ammonia contained in the gas. 2 B,May 14,539.

ACTION OF WATER-GLASS.

In a communication by Fluckiger upon certain reactions of
water-glass, some important technical applications are sug-

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. fl

gested as the result of the chemical relationship dwelt upon.
Thus many of the practical applications of this substance
depend especially upon the separation of silicic acid, and are
more efficient in proportion to the amount and completeness
of this separation. If, therefore, surfaces which are to be
silicified are coated alternately with water-glass and a solu-
tion of common salt, they will ultimately be found to possess
a harder and more uniform exterior. By first saturating
stone or wood with a solution of sal ammoniac, or common
salt, and adding the water-glass before the former application
is completely dry, the result will be found to be very satis-
factory. 2 C\JVov., 1870, 105.

IODINE FKOM CHILE SALTPETRE.

Iodine is said to be now manufactured on a large scale
from Chile saltpetre (nitrate of soda), over thirty thousand
pounds per annum being obtained. The process consists in
treating the liquids resulting from the manufacture of salt-
petre with a mixture of sulphurous acid and sulphite of soda,
in proper proportion, when the iodine falls to the bottom as
a black precipitate. This is allowed to drain on layers of
quartz sand, and is then removed, and finally purified by sub-
limation. Panama Star and Herald, Jan. 1 7.

RESTORING SPENT SULPHURIC ACID.

A patent has lately been taken out in England for restor-
ing spent sulphuric acid, and the inventor of the process
claims that by its means he can revivify the acid so cheaply
that the same weight can be obtained for one cent that now
costs seven in new acid. The method consists essentially in
heating the spent acid in a vessel of peculiar construction
with dry steam to a temperature of about 120, after which
six or seven pounds of black oxide of manganese are to be
sprinkled into it, and more steam is turned on. The tank is
then covered, and care must be taken to prevent its foaming
over ; should any thing of this kind be threatened, the steam
must be turned off for a short time, and the foam will sub-
side. The heating is kept up six or eight hours, and then the
liquid allowed to cool, after which any oil or tar that has
come to the surface is to be skimmed off, leaving the restored
acid behind. 8 A, Jan., 1871, 12.

72 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.
CERIUM A TEST FOR STRYCHNINE.

The oxide of cerium is recommended as a valuable test of
strychnine, since when concentrated sulphuric acid is poured
over strychnine, and oxide of cerium added to the mixture, a
beautiful blue color makes its appearance, a similar result
also taking place when the bichromate of potash is used in-
stead of cerium. The combination first mentioned, however,
with the same intensity of color, is much more durable, so
that when the chrome reaction has long since disappeared,
that produced by the cerium is persistent and easily recog-
nized. The blue tint passes gradually into a cherry-red, and
then remains unaltered for several days. It is stated that
the one hundred thousandth of a grain of strychnine can be
readily recognized by this test. Other vegetable alkaloids
give a totally different reaction with cerium, and can not,
therefore,be confounded with the strychnine. 15 (7,xvi.,256.

TESTING THE PURITY OF HYDRATE OF CHLORAL.

The purity of hydrate of chloral may, it is said, be tested
by means of a concentrated solution of potash. . The pure
hydrate does not color this at all, or at most only a feeble
yellow, and gives forth the pure smell of chloroform. Should
the liquid assume a brown color, and the smell of chloro-
acetic acid be combined with that of chloroform, or should
gases of a pungent odor be developed, which is not seldom
the case, the product is impure and unfit for use. 15 C,
1870,94.

TEST FOR BENZOLE.

For distinguishing genuine benzole, or that made of coal
tar, from that prepared from petroleum, Brandberg recom-
mends us to place a small piece of pitch in a testing tube,
and pour over it some of the substance to be examined. The
genuine will immediately dissolve the pitch to a tar-like
mass, while that derived from petroleum will scarcely l>e col-
ored. 12 (7, v., May, 1871, 39.

DETECTION OF BUTYRIC ACID IN GLYCERINE.

The presence of butyric acid in glycerine may be detected,
according toM.Perutz,by mixing the concentrated glycerine

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.

73

with strong alcohol and sulphuric acid of sixty degrees. If
the acid in question be present, butyric ether will be imme-
diately formed and readily recognized by its smell, which
strongly resembles that of the pine-apple. 2 B, Jan. 22,
1870,95

SYNTHESIS OF COXIIX.

Dr. Schiff is said to have accomplished the first synthesis
of a vegetable alkaloid, namely," coniin. The process by which
this is effected is too technical for our pages, but the result
obtained is stated to be entirely similar in its reaction and
physical peculiarities to the natural alkaloid, and to possess
like poisonous qualities. 1 C, 1871, iv., 64.

POTASSIUM IX TOBACCO-SMOKE.

A spectroscope analysis has, it is said, revealed the pres-
ence of potassium- in tobacco-smoke; and as small quantities
of potash increase the nervous excitability, while larger quan-
tities diminish it, it is suggested that the percentage of this
substance in tobacco-smoke may produce, at least in part, the
peculiar sensations which are experienced in the cavity of the
mouth after long and extreme smoking. 1 C, 1871, iv., 64.

EESEAECHES UPON TOBACCO-SMOKE.

Some recent investigations by Doctors Vohl and Eulen-
berg upon tobacco -smoke are likely materially to modify
existing views in regard to the physiological action of the
weed. Their paper is divided into three parts, the first of
which treats of the chemical composition of commercial to-
bacco for smoking, for chewing, and snuff; the second con-
tains the results of an examination of the products generated
by the combustion of tobacco during smoking; and the third
describes the physiological effects of the bases extracted from
tobacco-smoke.

Commercial tobacco for smoking purposes was invariably
found to contain nicotine, amounting sometimes to four per
cent, or more, Avhile in tobacco used for chewing and snuff*
only minute traces of that alkaloid could be detected, so that
nicotine poisoning from chewing or snuffing would appear to
be very problematical. The authors state that, as a fact, no
such cases are on record.

D

74 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Among the gaseous products given off during the smoking
of good tobacco and cigars, there were found oxygen, nitro-
gen, marsh gas, and carbonic oxide, besides the more readily
condensible gases and vapors sulphureted hydrogen and
hydrocyanic acid, and occasionally # sulphocyanic acid, this
case being produced at a later stage by thjs action of sulphur-
eted hydrogen on hydrocyanic acid. The acid and non-basic
products formed are formic, acetic, metacetic, butyric, valeric,
and carbolic acids, creosote, perhaps cyprylic and succinic
acids also, the latter from fermentation of the malic acid well
known to exist in the green tobacco plant. There are also a
solid hydrocarbon and a liquid hydrocarbon of the benzole
series.

The most interesting fact in the inquiry was that no nico-
tine could be detected among the basic products of the dis-
tillation, proving that the injurious effects of tobacco-smoking
are not to be attributed to this substance 5 on the contrary,
it was in the alkaloids of the pyridin or picolin series, well
known to be produced during the destructive distillation of
wood and other vegetable products, that the poisonous influ-
ences were found. These were tested upon pigeons and
Guinea-pigs, and were found to produce tetanic spasms, irreg-
ular action of the heart, and death. The same bases, obtained
from other sources than tobacco, produced similar effects. As
the same pyridin bases are among the products of the distil-
lation of opium, the authors are inclined to attribute the ef-
fects produced by smoking this drug, not to morphia, but to
the picolin series of alkaloids. 20 A, September 2, 285.

EEGIANINE.

According to Dr. Phipson, the English walnut {Juglans
reffia), and probably the American species also, contain,
among other substances, one which he calls recjianine (ob-
tained by treating the green husk of the fruit with benzole),
which appears in the form of a yellowish substance crystal-
lizing in groups of feather-like crystals. These are easily
decomposed, and, when treated with alkalies or ammonia,
yield a splendid and durable red solution, which, by a subse-
quent treatment, becomes the jet-black, amorphous, pure re-
gianic acid. 2 A, September 8, 119.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 75

A NEW CINCHONA ALKALOID.

A new alkaloid has, it is said, been detected in the mother
liquor obtained in the manufacture of sulphate of quinine,
distinguishable from the cinchona alkaloids by the solubility
of its salts, which renders it very difficult of separation from
the uncrystallizable quinoidin. It has not yet been deter-
mined whether it is contained in all the species of cinchona,
or, if not, in which of them ; nor have its physiological prop-
erties been experimented upon. 16 A,July^ 1871, 405.

REMOVAL OF ODOR FROM TANNIN.

It is said that the peculiar odor of commercial tannin may
be entirely removed, and thus better fitted for officinal ad-
ministration, by first dissolving six parts in twelve parts of
warm water, placed in a porcelain vessel, then pouring the
solution into a flask after adding from one half to one part
of ether, and shaking it up thoroughly. The mixture at first
appears of a dirty green and very turbid, but settles in a few
hours, the coloring matter sinking to th*e bottom in the form
of a flocculent coagulum. The liquor is then to be filtered,
and the filtrate evaporated. Tannin thus prepared has no
odor, and gives a perfectly clear solution with water. Ding.
Poly.Joum., CXCVIL, 1., 98.

COMBUSTION OF SMOKE.

It is generally understood that the cause of smoke, in the
case of burning wood and other forms of carbon, is due essen-
tially to an insufficient supply of air, which prevents the
combustion from being complete. This may seem strange
when we are assured that the gases produced by combustion,
of coal especially, contain an excess of air. This apparent
inconsistency, however, is explained when we are informed
that by a deficiency of air is simply meant that this is the
case in each volume or stratum of air in which combustion
has taken place ; but the gases which pass into the chimney
may be regarded as a collection of such volumes or strata
mixed with others rich in oxygen, and these, in most instan-
ces, being too little heated to admit of their enterino; into
combination.

From these theoretical considerations, it follows that, for

76 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

the purpose of avoiding or diminishing smoke, it will be suf-
ficient to cause an intimate admixture of the gases the mo-
ment they quit the lire, even without introducing a fresh
volume of air. This principle has been applied in several
forms. In one, two fireplace's are built side by side, running
parallel, and separated by a wall. The fires in these two
fireplaces are fed alternately, and, the currents of gas being
directed one against the other at the back of the furnaces,
the strata are thus broken up and mixed, so as greatly to di-
minish the amount of smoke. Another application for the
same purpose consists in introducing a little air, in a finely
divided state, behind the bridge of the furnace. This air
supplies the requisite oxygen at the moment when the com-
bustible gases are still sufficiently heated for them to become
ignited ; and the admixture is readily effected, but with some
loss of combustible matter. Still a third process, that "of
Thierry, consists .in introducing a jet of steam over the sur-
face of the fire. The steam does not exert any chemical ac-
tion, but operates mechanically by mixing gases, and thus
diminishing the amount of smoke. By means of these, and
other applications that will readily suggest themselves, much
may be done not only in preventing the escape of smoke from
furnaces, locomotives, and hearths, but also in economizing
the fuel by securing an appreciably greater intensity and
amount of heat. 14 A, 1870, July 9, 22.

HYGRAITIXITY.

In a paper on the " Estimation of Antimony," published in
the Chemical JYeios, Hugo Tamm calls the attention of chem-
ists to a new phenomenon, which the author describes under
the name of u hygraffinity." This phenomenon was discov-
ered in a peculiar compound of antimony bigallate of anti-
mony which is totally insoluble in water, and yet possess-
es a powerful affinity for moisture, which it absorbs rapidly
from the air, after being dried at the temperature of 212 F.
jNIost powders and precipitates, dried at that temperature, as
is well known, absorb moisture on exposure to the atmos-
phere, but this is a purely physical phenomenon, due to po-
rosity. On the contrary, in the case ofgallate of antimony,
chemical affinity is at work, and this precipitate, after expo-
sure to the air for two or three hours, actually absorbs two

D. CHEMISTRY AND' METALLURGY. 77

equivalents of water. In a word, this insoluble substance
has as much affinity for moisture as deliquescent salts. But
one of the most curious features in connection with this extra-
ordinary phenomenon is that, on being dried at 2i2 F.,bigal-
late of antimony loses the two equivalents of water which it
had absorbed from the air, and that, on being left exposed
once more to the atmosphere, it reabsorbs the same amount
of moisture. This interesting experiment may be repeated
indefinitely. 15 A, November 11, 1871, 628.

ACRIDINE, A NEW ANTHRACENE DERIVATIVE.

A basic substance has lately been separated by Graebe and
Caro from crude anthracene, to which, on account of its irri-
tating action upon the skin and mucous membranes, they
have given the name of acridine. This body is obtained by
heating the semi-solid portion of coal naphtha, which boils
between 300 and 360, with dilute sulphuric acid, and pre-
cipitating the acid solution with potassium dichroraate. A
dirty brown precipitate is obtained, which dissolves on re-
peated treatment with boiling water. The solution thus ob-
tained yields, after filtration and cooling, orange-yellow crys-
tals of the chromate of the base; these crystals, freed from
the mother-liquor by washing, yield the free base when warm-
ed with 'ammonia. Thus obtained, the body is not quite pure ;
but it may be rendered so by recrystallizing its hydrochlo-
ride. Acridine substance crystallizes, as determined by Dr.
P. Groth, in small, four-sided, rectangular prisms of the rhom-
bic system, whose edges are often, but narrowly, truncated
by the vertical prism, while the ends are formed by obtuse
domes.

Acridine melts at 10*7, and distills without alteration at a
temperature above 360. It sublimes, even below its melt-
ing-point, in Jarge, broad needles. It is almost insoluble in
cold, and but little soluble in boiling water. On the other
hand, it dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, carbon-bisulphide,
and hydro-carbons. The dilute solutions show* a beautiful
blue color by reflected light. It exerts a slight but distinct
alkaline reaction on litmus. When inhaled, either in dust or
vapor, it causes sneezing, and, in large quantity, coughing.
It is exceedingly stable, and may be distilled unaltered over
either ignited zinc or soda-lime, although most readily at-

?8 ANNUAL RECOKD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

tacked by sodium amalgam. Two series of salts of acridine
have already been prepared by the authors, and numerous
compounds with other substances examined by them. 21^4,
August, 1871, V 08.

ACTION OF LIGHT OX PETROLEUM.

According to recent investigations, when petroleum oils
are exposed under certain conditions to the sunlight, they
absorb from the air oxygen, which is converted into ozone.
"No chemical combination takes place between the oil and the
ozone, but the latter remains free, and oxydizes any substance
with which it comes in contact. In oils containing ozone the
smell is materially modified ; they burn w T ith difficulty, and
attack rapidly the stoppers of the vessels containing them,
especially if the stoppers be composed of cork. When glass
vessels are used it has been found that the color of the glass
exercises a great influence over the absorption of oxygen.
Decolorized oils exposed in white glass vessels to the action
of sunlight turn yellow, become charged strongly with ozone,
and burn with difficulty. This is principally the case with
the American petroleums. They should, therefore, be kept
in metallic vessels, or, if glass be used, it should be shaded as
much as possible from the sun. 13 (7, August 11,1870,1151.

BRITTLE SILVER.

Attention has lately been directed to the change which
alloys of silver experience by long burial in the earth, and
several articles have appeared in scientific journals on the
subject ; one based upon the examination of ancient Roman
vases found buried in the Black Forest of Germany ; and
another, by Professor Church, in reference to the specimens
lately exhumed in the island of Cyprus by Mr. Di Cessnola,
the resident American consul. These latter were found upon
the site of the ancient city of Idalium, and lay % claim to an
antiquity of at least 1500 years, during which time they have
become covered externally, to the depth of about one thirti-
eth of an inch, with a crust, which proved, upon analysis, to
be composed principally of finely divided silver, mixed with
the chloride and sulphide of that metal, and a little basic car-
bonate of copper. Beneath this layer the substance of the
metal appears white, metallic, and uniform, but very brittle,

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. 79

the objects being readily snapped by a very slight pressure.
It was found, however, that by gentle hammering, or rolling,
the brittle mass could be easily restored to its original mal-
leable condition, while its density gradually rose from 9.06
to 10.2. From this it would appear that the change is mo-
lecular, and not chemical, the extreme portions alone being
modified. 21.4, July, 1871,498.

DAMBOSE, AN INGREDIENT OF BORNEO CAOUTCHOUC.

M. A. Girard, in a late communication to the Academy of
Sciences of Paris, presents a notice of a new volatile and sac-
charine principle discovered some time ago by him in the
caoutchouc of Borneo, and which is remarkable for its de-
composition in the presence of hydriodic acid. This, wheu
heated in a closed vessel to a certain temperature w T ith an ex-
cess of the acid, separated into a methyl-hydriodic ether, and
a new substance, likewise saccharine, crystalline, and of great
stability, having the composition of dried glucose, and hav-
ing much analogy with inosite. This substance he names
dambose. 3 J5, xvn., August 24,1871, 337.

CHARACTERS OP PURE GLYCERINE.

According to Roller, among the characteristics of pure
glycerine, as compared with an impure article, are the fol-
lowing :' Pure glycerine has a neutral reaction, and on. evap-
oration in a porcelain dish leaves only a very slight carbona-
ceous crust, while the impure has a much greater percentage
of coaly matter. The pure article does not become brown
when treated, drop by drop, with concentrated sulphuric acid,
even after several hours ; the impure becomes brown even
when but slightly adulterated. Pure glycerine, treated with
pure nitric acid and a solution of nitrate of silver, does not
become cloudy, while the impure exhibits a decidedly milky
appearance. Sometimes the impure article becomes black-
ened with the sulphide of ammonium. Oxalate of ammonia
produces a black clouding; lime-water sometimes causes a
milky discoloration. Pure glycerine, however, constantly re-
mains perfectly uncolored, and clear as water, the impure be-
coming colored to a greater or less extent. If a few drops
are rubbed between the fingers, pure glycerine causes no fat-
ty smell ; the contrary is the case with the impure, especially

80 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

if a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid be introduced. 18.4,
October 4,1871,631.

ARTIFICIAL PREPARATION OF MILK.

One of the latest enterprises in organic chemistry consists
in the preparation of artificial milk, which has been attempt-
ed by Dubrunfaut, and which he claims to have accomplished
by emulsifying fatty matters with an artificial serum. This
is done as follows : 40 or 50 grams of saccharine matter (lac-
tin, cane-sugar, or glucose), 20 or 30 grains of dried albumen
(the dried white of egg, as met with in Paris), and 1 or 2
grams of crystals of soda carbonate, are dissolved in a half
litre of water, and the whole is emulsified with 50 or 60
grams of olive-oil, or other comestible fatty matter. The
emulsification takes place best at a moderate temperature,
that of 50 or 60 being sufficient. The liquid thus prepared
has the appearance of cream, and requires to be mixed with
twice its volume of water to acquire the consistence and as-
pect of milk. To prepare a fluid approaching cream in its
qualities, gelatin is substituted for albumen; 100 grams of
fat are emulsified in a litre of serum, containing 2 or 3 grams
of gelatin. Artificial cream prepared in this way shows no
tendency to separate into fat or serum.
. Gaudin, in discussing the preceding suggestion, gives his
testimony as to the depriving fats of all unj^leasant odor by
mere subjection to an appropriate temperature. He also
states that very good artificial milk can be prepared from
bones rich in fat, by purifying this fat by means of superheat-
ed steam, and combining the fat thus obtained with gelatin.
This milk is, he says, almost like that of the cow ; and, when
kept, acquires first the odor of sour milk, then that of cheese.
The gelatin in it represents the caseine; the fat, the butter;
the sugar, the sugar of milk. It serves for the preparation
of coffee and chocolate, of soups and creams of excellent fla-
vor, and its cost is but trifling.

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY,

81

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

HOMERIC IRON.

It has been suggested that wherever iron is mentioned as
occurring in the earlier Scriptures, as well as in the ancient
Greek authors, such as Homer and Hesiod, in all cases it is
to be considered as referring to meteoric iron, the period
when mankind was able to reduce the metal from its ores not
yet having arrived. This view is supported by Professor
Haidinger, of Vienna, in a very elaborate and learned disqui-
sition ; and he also suggests that the iron found on the sur-
face of the earth in Southern Africa for a time, and used by
the natives, as well as that employed by the Esquimaux in
making implements before their association with the whites,
is due to the same origin. Mitth. Anthrop. Soc. Uren, 63.

IRON IN GUAYAQUIL.

Accounts from Guayaquil report the discovery of iron in
great abundance on the banks of the River Doull, occurring
in the form of masses weighing hundreds of pounds of an hy-
drated peroxide of iron in crystals of micaceous iron, and a
red hematite. As the surrounding forests will produce wood
enough for making the necessary charcoal, it is proposed to
start an iron furnace on the spot. Pan. S. and H., Jan. 17.

XANTHOPHYLLITE A MATRIX OF DIAMOND.

Much inquiry has been prosecuted as to the matrix of the
diamond, and various suggestions have been pronounced in
regard to it, itacolumite, or the so-called flexible sandstone
occurring in Brazil, the United States, and elsewhere being
assigned this honor by many authors. From a communica-
tion by Professor Leonhard we are informed that the xantho-
phyllite of the Ural Mountains shares with the itacolumite
in this respect, since in certain localities where this substance
abounds a microscopic examination of its laminae reveals to a
magnifying power of thirty times the existence of large num-
bers of minute crystals of the diamond, while with a power
of two hundred their crystalline form and relative position

D2

82 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

can be distinctly traced. Most of these crystals are colorless
and completely transparent; a few of them are brown. The
mineral xanthophyllite above referred to is a micaceous sub-
stance occurring with magnetic iron in talcose slates. 3 C,
June 26,621.

GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMOND-FIELDS.

Professor Morris, in a communication to the Geological So-
ciety of London upon the geology of South Africa, referred
to the fact that the diamonds of South Africa came from cer-
tain stratified beds containing, besides reptilian remains (such
as the Dicynodoii), numerous plants and much fossil wood.
He then suggested a query as to whether the diamonds them-
selves may not be of vegetable origin, and similar in charac-
ter to the small crystal quartz found in the stems of bamboo.
13 A, December, 1870, 10.

GEOLOGY OF MISSOURI.

The first annual report of the State Geologist of Missouri,
under the new organization, has just been made to the Legis-
lature by Professor A. D. Hagar, chief of the survey. This
gentleman is well known to the scientific men of the country
in connection with his work upon the survey of Vermont, of
which a very valuable report was issued by him.

In his preliminary examination of the mineral resources of
Missouri he was gratified to find the amount of lead greater
than was supposed. In reference to the much vexed question
whether Missouri contains tin", he remarks that although an
assay of the ore furnished a button of tin at the bottom, yet
he is not entirely satisfied that this was not the result of some
attempt to deceive him, as he could find no evidence in the
rock itself of its being tin-bearing. He evidently considers
the case as not proved, and awaits the result of farther care-
ful experiments on the subject. Paper.

ARTIFICIAL VOLCANOES.

Mi\ Yon Hochstetter has made some interesting experi-
ments illustrating the phenomena of volcanoes. For this
purpose he melted sulphur in water under a -steam pressure
of two to three atmospheres, during which a certain amount
of water was taken up by the sulphur. A large quantity of

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. . 83

this melted sulphur was then poured into a deep wooden ves-
sel, and, in cooling, a crust was formed upon the surface. A
hole was made in this crust and kept open, and through this,
as the congelation of the sulphur proceeded, eruptions of
melted sulphur, with exhalations and explosions of steam,
took place at regular intervals ; and after a short time a min-
iature volcanic cone was formed, with all the characteristics
of a volcano made by successive lava streams. 12^1,1870,
Bee. 29, 179.

THE MICROSCOPE IN GEOLOGY.

The microscope has rendered its aid to an immense num-
ber of branches of physical investigation in turn, and quite
lately its value to the geologist has been shown by the re-
searches of Mr. David Forbes and others. Mr. Alport, in a
recent communication, gives, as the result of many hundreds
of sections of rocks and minerals, the assurance, first, that the
mineral constituents of the melaphyres and other fine-grained
igneous rocks may be determined thereby with certainty a
result which has not been attained by any other method of
examination. Second, that the mineral constituents of the
true volcanic rocks and of the old melaphyres are generally
the same. Third, that the old rocks have almost invariably
undergone a considerable amount of alteration, and that this
change alone constitutes the difference now existing between
them and the recent volcanic basalts. 5 A, Oct., 1870, 430.

ANDREWS OX THE CHRONOLOGY OF AMERICAN LAKES.

Professor Andrews, of Chicago, in a memoir published by
him upon " The North American Lakes (Michigan and Huron
especially), considered as chronometers of post-glacial time,"
comes to the following conclusion in regard to their history
and chronology, assuming that their formation took place
during or at the close of the drift period: "1. The upper
beach of the lakes began to form immediately after the bould-
er-drift period, and continued to accrete for about nine hun-
dred years. No animal fossils have yet been found in it. 2.
The waters then fell suddenly to about their present level,
where they remained till a thin bed of peat accreted on the
marshy slope vacated by the waves. Data are not at pres-
ent available for a calculation of this low-water period, but

84 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

from the position of the soil-bed in the eastern dunes it prob-
ably lasted five hundred years. 3. The water rose again, sub-
merging for a short time the upper beach, but soon fell to
the line of the middle one, where it remained about one thou-
sand six hundred or two thousand years. This period ap-
pears to be contemporary with the loess. 4. The water, which
had already slowly fallen some feet, now retired more rapidly
to near its present level, which it has maintained with only
moderate fluctuations ever since. 5. The total time of all
these deposits appears to be somewhere between five thou-
sand three hundred and seven thousand five hundred years."
Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., 1870, 23.

ACTION OF ICE OX THE NORTH AMERICAN COAST.

According to Professor Shaler, due consideration has not
been given by American geologists to the influence which ice
has exerted in shaping the outline of our coast, since he is
convinced that, among other illustrations of this fact, the
eastern portion of Cape Cod has been produced by glacial
action. Though of recent formation, this feature of the coast
is important,, in a zoological point of view, as furnishing a
well-marked boundary-line for the fishes, invertebrates, and
marine plants of the coast. Long Island is likewise, accord-
ing to Professor Shaler, made up of masses of material laid
down in a confused manner under water. These masses came
from the north, and are the product of the ice-sheets which
poured out from the rivers running southerly and emptying
into the Sound. Chesapeake and Delaware Bays also exhibit
the action of ice, the material excavated from them having
been borne southward so as to form Cape Hatteras, and the
bars in the waters of Albemarle Sound. The Professor con-
cludes by expressing the opinion that no evidences of glacial
action south of Hatteras have been discovered. 3 7>;

PHYSICS OP ARCTIC ICE IN SCOTLAND.

Mr. Robert Brown, in a paper upon the "Physics of Arctic
Ice," especially as relating to Scotland, sums up as follows :
First, after the tertiary period the country was covered over
with a great depth of snow and ice, very much as in Green-
land at the present day, but possibly some of the mountain-
tops appeared as islands. During this and the subsequent

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 85

period glaciers plowed their way down from the inland ice,
and icebergs broke off and reached the sea through the glens,
then ice fiords. Second, after this the country sank gradual-
ly, as Greenland is now sinking, to the depth of several hun-
dred feet, and during this .period most of the laminated fos-
siliferous clays were formed. During this period boulders
were deposited from the icebergs, and other floating ice drift-
ed both from the north and south, as was also the case dur-
ing the former period. Third, the country seems then to
have emerged from the water, but no doubt slowly, until the
glaciers finally left the country. Fourth, by this time the
country was much higher than now, and the land being con-
nected with the continent, the bulk of the present flora and
fauna crept into it from various quarters, though the Alpine
plants still kept possession of the higher mountain regions
during a great portion of this epoch. Fifth, a depression
now took place, and the esfruarine beds, or carses, of the Scotch
rivers were formed. Much of the fossiliferous boulder clay,
formed as he has described it, is now under the sea, off the
coast remains of its fauna being continually dredged up.
Man had also by this time got into the country. Sixth, the
land after this seems to have risen, in all probability, to its
present altitude, for we have no certain evidence that since
the dawn of history there were any oscillations of level.
5 A, July, 335.

WAS THE PRE-GLACIAL HEAT CAUSED BY A METEORIC

BODY ?

A French savant, M. De Latterade, has communicated to
the Academie des Sciences the remarkable theory that during
the period which preceded the glacial epoch, when the tem-
perature of the northern hemisphere was far higher than it
is at present, as evidenced by the fossil remains of the Euro-
pean and American tertiary formations, this accession of tem-
perature. w,as caused by the proximity to the earth of a very
powerful star or second sun, which gave to the earth an im-
mense quantity of heat, and which has since receded into the
abysses of celestial space. M. Latterade contends that this
supplementary sun did not disturb the elements of the plan-
ets, because its attractive power was less than its heating
power. He states, moreover, that the heating power does

86 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

not vary with the mass, like the attractive power. (Commu-
nicated.)

GLACIERS IX THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

Professor Agassiz, in an interesting communication, at a
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, upon the former existence of local glaciers in the
White Mountains, states that, whatever may have been the
number of the higher peaks of the White Mountains that at
any given time during the glacial period rose above the great
ice-sheet which then covered the country, this mountain
range offered no obstacle to the southward movement and
progress of the northern ice-fields, the drift, so called, having
the same general characteristics on the northern and south-
ern sides of the White Mountains. In addition to this great
sea of ice, however, he finds material evidence to prove the
existence of many local glaciers at different points, and he
infers that they are of more recent date. He expects here-
after to show that the action of local glaciers of the White
Mountains began to be circumscribed within the areas they
covered after the typical drift had, in consequence of the
melting of the northern ice-sheet, been laid bare in the Mid-
dle States, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and even after
the southern portion of Vermont and New Hampshire had
been uncovered, and when the White Mountains, the Adiron-
dacks, and Katahdin were the only ice-clad j:>eaks in that part
of the country. 5 D, 1870, 550.

WESTERN TERTIARY FOSSILS.

Professor Meek, in describing some species of certain fossils
collected by Mr. Clarence King, remarks that the trilobites
from Eastern Nevada are dec*idedly primordial types, and, as
far as known to him, the first fossils of that age yet brought
in from any locality west of the Black Hills. The collection
also establishes the fact that the rich silver mines of the
White Pine district occur in Devonian rocks. He also states
with regard to the fresh-water tertiary shells collected by
Mr. King and others from the interior of the continent, that
neither the beaks of the bivalves nor the tips of the spire in
the univalves are ever in the slightest degree eroded, the
most delicate marking of these parts being perfectly pre-

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 87

served, unless broken by some accident. From this fact Pro-
fessor Meek infers that the waters of the lakes and streams
were, during the tertiary epoch, more or less alkaline, as is
the case with a large number of those found there at the
present day. 4 Z>, vol. L., 423.

ANIMAL ORIGIN OP PETROLEUM.

As a counterpoise to the suggestion of some geologists
that petroleum and asphaltum are of vegetable origin, it is
now maintained that these substances are derived from ani-
mal remains. . This latter view is thought to be substantia-
ted by the fact of the absence of iodine, which would have
been. present if derived from sea-weeds ; and also, on the oth-
er hand, by the presence of ammonia, which does not belong
to the vegetable kingdom. Furthermore, asphaltum and bi-
tumen frequently occur in strata which are rich in animal re-
mains, from which they may have been derived by the action
of intense heat with great pressure. 1 C, 1871, in., 48.

ORIGIN OF COAL PROM SEA-WEEDS.

A French geologist, in a memoir upon the origin of coal,
takes the ground that it is derived entirely from marine
plants, such as fucus, or sea-weed, which are destitute of
woody fibre ; and that its first place of deposit must necessa-
rily have been at the depth of the sea, and in a place differ-
ent from that in which these plants had their growth. The
arguments adduced by him are varied and ingenious, and
will doubtless be responded to in due course of time by those
w T ho maintain that the same substance was derived from the
gradual accumulation of terrestrial plants of somewhat va-
ried forms. 7 B, June 4, 212.

ORIGIN OP THE PHOSPHATE BEDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Professor Kerr, in a communication before the American As-
sociation upon the origin of the South Carolina phosphates,
is inclined to refer them to accumulations of a species of
Lingula, a mollusk (or a worm, according to Mr. Morse),
which has recently been discovered in abundance along the
sounds of North and South Carolina. The shell of this ani-
mal, he states, consists of phosphate instead of carbonate of
lime, and its habitat is at the precise level of the Ashley

88 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

River phosphates. As the shells are very fragile and easily
comminuted, he thinks that this solid material, accumulating,
has been agglomerated by some force into the nodules which
are so peculiar to the formation in question. 5 Z>, 1870,571.

ENCROACHMENTS OF THE SEA IN YORKSHIRE.

In a paper upon " The Encroachments of the Sea" on the
east coast of Yorkshire, by Rev. T. O. Morris, read before the
last meeting of the British Association, it was stated that on
the average there had been a loss of "land of from two to
three yards every year probably about two. and a half to
two and three quarter yards per annum. If looked at in
round numbers, the waste of land, at three yards in. each
year, would amount to nearly thirty-nine acres between Spurn
Point and Flamborough Head alone ; or in a hundred years
to 3900 acres, which, at the value of 30 or 50 per acre,
would represent a serious money loss of grain or other crops;
or, taking the waste, as had been calculated, at one mile since
the date of the Conquest (1066), the money value in that in-
terval, at. 30 per acre, would be equal to 691,200; or, at
50 per acre, no less than 1,152,000. In conclusion, Mr.
Morris recommended that a sea-wall of roughly hewn, or
even unhewn, stone be laid at an angle of thirty-five degrees,
which he thought would be a permanent protection' from en-
croachments. 18 A, August 25, 562.

HYDRO-GEOLOGY.

The Abbe Richard, it is said, claims to be so successful in
indicating places where water can be found that he is called
" the prophet of water." During the meeting just held of the
British Association, the abbe presented himself before that
bocly, and gave a long list of places where, under his direc-
tion, water had been obtained, and stated that the knowledge
he possessed of this law, by which he was enabled to make
these discoveries, was his own property. He would not re-
veal this before he had seen as many countries and soils as
possible, in order to support his theory on the greatest possi-
ble number of facts. He asserted that it is possible, by the
inspection of the soil, to recognize the existence of hidden
springs; and not only water springs, but that every thing
liquid comes under the same law, and that, consequently,

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 89

springs of naphtha and petroleum oil can be discovered by
the knowledge of this hydro-geological law, as he terras it;
and, in fact, he claimed the discovery of several such springs
in the Carpathian Mountains. 18 A, August 25, 562.

REMAINS IX THE CAVES OF THE ALTAI.

Professor Brandt, in a memoir upon the remains of mam-
mals discovered in the quaternary formation of the caves in
the Altai Mountains, remarks that a great majority of the
species belong to forms still living in the same mountains;
or, as in the case of the boar and the beaver, exterminated
there within a recent period, the total number hitherto deter-
mined amounting to about one third of the species of the pres-
ent fauna. A few of the remains, however, such as those of the
cave hyena, Irish elk, the primitive ox, the fossil rhinoceros,
and the mammoth belong to animals of the existence of which
in later times there is no historical evidence, not much reli-
ance being placed upon an alleged tradition of the Tartars
of Southern Siberia in regard to the occurrence of giant ani-
mals, with which their ancestors were in the habit of contend-
ing. Another animal found in these caves is the horse, of
which no wild specimens occur at the present time in Siberia.
The bones of this animal seem in rather better preservation,
and, consequently, of newer introduction than those of the
extinct species just mentioned. A similar condition of pres-
ervation attaches to bones of the bison, while those of the
primitive ox have lost their organic matter almost in the
same proportion as the mammoth and other species. From
this Professor Brandt concludes that the primitive ox was
exterminated in Asia as well as in Europe earlier than was
the case with the bison and the wild horse ; this being due,
perhaps, in the case of the ox, to the more palatable nature
of its flesh when compared with that of the bison. Finally,
our author remarks that, even if the coexistence of man in
Siberia and the colossal and extinct animals can not be estab-
lished on palaeontological and archaeological data, although
indicated perhaps in some obscure sagas, yet we may assume
it with tolerable certainty, as we know that he lived in Eu-
rope unquestionably at the same time with the mammoth,
rhinoceros, Irish elk, bison, and the auerochs, and possibly
even emigrated from Asia at the same time with them.
Brandt, Melanges biologiques, VII., 434.

00 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

SEVENTH REPORT ON THE KENT'S CAVERN EXPLORATION.

In the seventh report on the Kent's* Cavern Explorations,
made by Mr. Pengelly to the British Association, it is stated
that the usual section of the floor in a descending order con-
sisted of, 1. Black mould, containing many objects of recent
date, and some of Romano-British times; also remains of an-
imals still living, or which lived in historic times. 2. Granu-
lar stalagmite, containing remains of extinct animals, and
also a human jaw. 3. Cave earth, yielding a harvest of ex-
tinct remains ; also flint implements. 4. Crystalline stalag-
mitic floor, and Breccia formed of rocks from distant hills ;
bears only have been obtained from these.

Mr. Pengelly describes the work done during the past
twelve months, showing what new passages had been opened,
and the number of species which had been obtained. They
included hyena, horse, rhinoceros, Irish elk, ox, deer, badger,
elephant, bear, fox, lion, reindeer, rabbit, bat, wolf, dog, etc.
Many of the bones were gnawed by hyena ; others were
marked by rootlets encircling them. Altogether about 2200
teeth and bones, and 366 flint implements and flakes, had
been obtained since the last year's report was read. 12 A,
August 24, 332.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE BY MEANS OF

THE MAMMALIA.

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, in his paper on " The Classification of
the Palaeolithic Age by means of the Mammalia," stated that
the method of classification of this age by reference to the
mammals associated with man was not of any value. M.
Lartet divided the palaeolithic age into four stages that of
the great bear, that of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros,
that of the reindeer, and that of the aurochs. The essential
basis of this classification lay in the d priori consideration
that the animals of the palaeolithic age came into Europe one
by one. It was, however, found by observation that they
were fairly distributed in the caves and river deposits of Eu-
rope, and very generally together as, for instance, in Kent's
Hole. The same negative conclusion applied to the caves of
France and Bel'gium, and in the latter country, indeed, the
reindeer was probably living in the neolithic, bronze, and

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 91

iron ages, since it lived in the Hyrcanian Forest in the clays
of Julius Caesar. For the truth of M. Lartet's classification,
it was considered essential to show that these animals in-
vaded Europe in a definite succession ; and as evidence, of
this is wanting in the present state of our knowledge, it fol-
lows that the* chronological value of M. Lartet's classification
must be regarded as inadmissible. 18 A, August 25, 562.

PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY OF NOETH AMEEICA IX THE PLIOCENE

PEEIOD.

In a review by Mr. Boyd Dawkins of Professor Leidy's re-
cent great work on the fossil mammals of North America,
while discussing the distribution of animal life in America
during the pliocene period, he shows that it furnishes impor-
tant information in regard to the physical geography of the
continent at that period. Thus the absence of edentata, as
well as of the opossum, and of the South American forms of
rodents, implies that North America was separated from
South America by an impassable barrier this, of course,
being water. At that time the Isthmus of Panama probably
did not exist, so as to form a bridge connecting the two
lands, over which animals could cross. On the other hand,
however, the genera belonging to the basin of the Upper Mis-
souri indicate an unmistakable inroad of animal forms from
some other region. Thus the deer, the mastodon, the ele-
phant, the hipparion, and the horse, together with the wolf,
could only have been' driven from Europe and Asia, with
which there was evidently a connection during both the j3li-
ocene and miocene epochs. During the quaternary period
this separation from South America no longer existed, 'and
the South American forms seem to. extend northward to a
considerable distance in North America, thus showing the
period of the elevation of the Isthmus of Panama to ha-ve
been a portion of the post-pliocene or quaternary period.
With all this, however, no barrier seems to have existed be-
tween North America and what we now call the Old World,
since many forms continued to be common to both, such as
the bisons, horses, moose, mammoth, musk-ox, etc. ; and we
are therefore entitled to assume that North America was
separated from Asia at Behring's Straits during a compara-
tively recent period. From the evidence adduced in Dr.

92 ANNUAL RECORD OP SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Lcidy's work we see an additional illustration of the fact
that certain forms which belong to a given formation in Eu-
rope continued during a succeeding formation in America
after having become extinct in Europe. Thus, while various
European miocene genera occur in the American pliocene, so
the mastodon and hipparion, which died out in "the European
pliocene, existed in America during the post-pliocene. And
again, the musk-ox of the post-pliocene of Europe, now ex-
tinct there, still exists, living in abundance, in arctic America.
Illustrations of this law are familiar to palaeontologists both
in the animal and vegetable world, in some instances bein^
based upon specific identities, and in others upon generic re-
lationships. 12 A, July 21, 232.

MICROSCOPICAL SECTIONS OF ROCKS.

The Mechanics' Magazine for September 30 contains an
account of an improved apparatus for the preparation of sec-
tions of rock for microscopic examination. This branch of
investigation, within a few years past, has become of much
importance, and in the hands of Mr. Forbes and others is fur-
nishing valuable results in determining the true character of
rocks, and frequently much more satisfactorily than would be
possible by the best chemical analysis. 3 A 9 September 30,
1871,250. *

DEEP BORINGS.

It is reported that, in boring for salt at Sperenberg, near
Berlin, Prussia, they have penetrated to the enormous depth
of 5500 feet the greatest depth ever reached either by min-
ing or boring 3200 feet of this being in a bed of solid salt,
which has not yet been pierced through. It is thought prob-
able that this stratum of salt, originally horizontal, has been
uplifted by some catastrophe and brought into a more or less
inclined or even a vertical position. Further researches will
prove or disprove the truth of this explanation. 1 C, 1871,
xiii., 208.

silver mine at lake superior.

Allusions have lately been made in the public papers to
the discovery of a silver mine on an isolated rock in Lake
Superior, which is being worked under the protection of a

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 93

cofter-darn. According to Mr. Dubois, of the United States
Mint, this ore becomes richer with the increasing depth, and
is now yielding at the rate of $13,000 a ton. Pr. Am. Phil.
Soc, December, 1870.

NEW MINERAL OIL LOCALITIES.

An extensive bed of bituminous slate has been discovered
eighty miles from Sydney, Australia, near to the western
slope of the Blue Mountains, and a large establishment has
been erected for the purpose of obtaining oil. The seam is
'horizontal, and from five and a half to six feet thick, in strati-
fied sandstone. About one hundred tons of the slate are
worked up weekly. The crude oil first obtained is subse-
quently converted into burning-fluid, lubricating oil, etc. In
that portion of India, also, adjoining the mountains of Persia^
principally occupied by the cretaceous and tertiary strata,
sufficient traces of petroleum have been found to make it im-
portant to make further investigations. Petroleum has like-
wise already been obtained in the vicinity of Gunda.

NEW LOCALITY OF TIN.

The attempt to discover tin in workable quantities in the
United States has been rather a failure, since, notwithstand-
ing the many enthusiastic announcements of the finding of
mines of this valuable metal in Missouri, Utah, and elsewhere,
it would appear that the metal itself is not forthcoming. The
latest account from the Utah mines is that the substance in
question is cadmium, which, although valuable, is perhaps
less so than tin, in view of the threatened exhaustion of the
best-known mines. It is now reported that some rich depos-
its have been found in the Department of Lozere, in France.
15 A, November 11, 1871, 629.

CAUSE OF SMOKINESS IN QUARTZ CRYSTALS.

Mineralogists are well aware that in 1868 a large number
of crystals of smoky quartz were found in Switzerland, which
furnished specimens of great beauty and size to many cabi-
nets throughout the world. In the course of an investiga-
tion into the physical characters of some of these crystals, it
was found, much to the surprise of the experimenter, that on
heating they lost their smoky appearance, and became as

94 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

limpid and colorless as the most beautiful rock crystal ; and
this suggested the inquiry whether the color was due to the
inclusion of organic substances which were destroyed by
heating, or to some change of the molecular constitution of
the crystal caused by the heat. To determine this question,
Professor Forster subjected a series of these crystals to a
careful examination, and, as the result, came finally to the
conclusion that the black color was not the result of any pe-
culiar molecular condition, but that it was produced by the
presence in the crystal of bodies containing organic carbon
and hydrogen. 15 C, xviii., 283.

GLACIERS OF SPITZBERGEN.

According to Captain Koldeway, of the Germcmia steam-
er, the glaciers of Spitzbergen differ especially from those of
Switzerland in stretching down into the sea, where they end
in a perpendicular wall, and in having the upper surface
somewhat polished, and free from all roughness and ice-
blocks. In the glaciers examined at Augusta Bay and Wil-
liam Island there were no crevasses. Moraines, however, oc-
curred, those of the great glacier of the former locality con-
sisting of limestone and basalt. 12 A, April 6, 1871, 454.

VALLEY GLACIERS IN NEW ENGLAND.

In discussing the glacial period in New England, some
years ago, Professor Dana announced his belief that the un-
der part of the great continental glacier, lying in the Valley
of the Connecticut, moved in the direction of the valley,
either while the glacier was at its maximum thickness and
held on its southeasterly course, or after its partial decline.
He now, in the October number of the Journal of Science,
proceeds to state the evidence in regard to the Connecticut
Valley movement, and to show that other large valleys of
Central and Western New England had also, in the same
sense, their valley glaciers ; that is, they determined the di-
rection of the ice that lay within them. The facts appealed
to for the support of these conclusions are drawn partly from
his own observations, but also from the reports of Dr. E.
Hitchcock, Professor C. II. Hitchcock, Professor Hagar, and
others.

These observations show that on the higher lands, both

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 95

east and west of the Connecticut, the great continental gla-
cier had a southeastward course, varying somewhat in par-
ticular latitudes, and that it moved over the elevated lands
to the east of the river, keeping right onward, with little va-
riation in its main movement, notwithstanding the ridges in
its course, and probably following the general slope of the
surface of New England. This being true of the movement
of the main mass, other facts show that the bottom ice of the
great glacier often followed the courses of the valleys be-
neath it.

He also discusses the question whether the scratches in the
valleys were made in the glacial era, while the glacier was
of nearly or quite its maximum thickness, or during the de-
cline of the glacier, when its thickness was so diminished as
to make the ice of the valleys essentially independent gla-
ciers, and comes to the conclusion that the valley ice in the
Connecticut had, throughout its southern half, its own inde-
pendent southward motion, mostly unmodified, during the
whole progress of the glacial era, but that among the more
northern part of the valley there were modifications in the
valley movement referred to, and also scratches made by the
general glacier. 4 2>, October, 1871,233.

GREAT CONTINENTAL GLACIERS.

In the preceding article we give an abstract of Professor
Dana's paper in the American Journal of Science upon the
great continental glaciers of North America, and in the No-
vember number of that magazine he continues this highly
interesting topic, and proceeds to investigate its source, or
the position of the great plateau which constituted the start-
ing-point of the glacier movement. After a. full discussion
of the direction of the rock scratches at different points in
New- England and Canada, he comes to the conclusion that
the region of greatest elevation in question along the water-
shed and that of the icj? plateau must have been situated
between Lake Temiscaming and Lake Mistissinny, and that
its trend was consequently northeast and southwest, this be-
ing nearly that of the water-shed between the lakes a trend
just right for a southeast movement of the ice. The height
of this Canadian water-shed must have been at least four
thousand five hundred feet greater than at the present time.

96 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

The present difference from that level is not due, in all
probability, to denudation, but rather to a subsequent de-
pression of the level of the surface following the previous ele-
vation. This elevation of the surface of the land of Northern
Canada into a great plateau at least as high as the summit*
of Mount Washington, with the less elevations north and
south as a part of the great swell of the surface, and with the
simultaneous elevation of other, perhaps higher plateaus over
the more northern and northwestern portions of the continent,
and all following the majestic uplifts of the tertiary, would
have made a glacial period for North America, whatever the
position of the ecliptic, or whatever the eccentricity of the
earth's orbit, though more readily, of course, if other circum-
stances favored. Having the most elevated land of eastern
North America along the region pointed out, the courses of
the winds and the distribution of moisture would have been
different from the present. Canada, being then on the sea-
ward slope of the high land, instead of, as now, on the land-
ward slope, could not have had its comparatively dry climate
with only an annual fall of thirty inches of moisture. Ac-
cording to Professor Dana, in the subsidence of this plateau
it is probable that the same region was depressed even below
its present level, this probably initiating the melting of the
glacier, followed by a return movement, with possibly minor
oscillations during the same period. 4_Z>, JYbv., 1871, 373.

BROWN ON THE INTERIOR OF GREENLAND.

Dr. Robert Brown, in a communication on the "Interior of
Greenland," states that the result of all the attempted explo-
rations of the interior o-oes to show that this is one huge mer
de glace, of which the outlets and overflow are the compara-
tively small glaciers on the coast, though, when compared
with the glacier system of the Alps, they are of gigantic, size.
The outskirting land is, to all intents and purposes, merely a
circlet of islands of greater or less "extent. There are, in all
probability, no mountains in the interior only a high plateau,
from which the unbroken ice is shed on either side to the east
and west, the greater slope being toward the west. No moun-
tains have been seen in the interior, the prospect being gen-
erally bounded by a dim, icy horizon. Dr. Brown considers
Greenland susceptible of being crossed from side to side with

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 97

dog or other sledges, provided the party start under experi-
enced guides, and sufficiently early in the year. 15 A, Au-
gust 19,1871,247.

KEPOET ON THE GEOLOGY OF JAMAICA.

A report on the geology of Jamaica, by Mr. James G. Saw-
kins, has recently been published by the British government,
and, in the interest attaching to the West Indies at the pres-
ent time, furnishes an important addition to our means of ob-
taining a thorough acquaintance with that region. The phys-
ical geology and the special structure of the island are given
in considerable detail in this work, which is accompanied by
a large map of the island, suitably colored to show the differ-
ent geological formations. Several appendices are given in
the volume, one of them being a complete classification of the
organic remains of the island, by Mr. Etheridge, who refers
them respectively to their equivalents in the cretaceous and
tertiary deposits of Europe. According to Sir Roderic Mur-
chison, the practical conclusions to be reached from the report
of Mr. Sawkins and the appendix of Mr. Etheridge are that,
in Jamaica, as in most of the West India islands, the princi-
pal geological deposits are almost exclusively of the miocene
age of the tertiary series, the only exceptions being in Trini-
dad and Jamaica, where eocene and cretaceous formations oc-
cur. Hence it follows that the igneous rocks which are asso-
ciated with such deposits are for the most part either of the
miocene age or posterior to that era, some of them, indeed,
having been recently erupted.

SEA BOTTOM ALONG THE ATLANTIC COAST OF THE UNITED

STATES.

-A

At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History a
communication was presented by Count Pourtales in reference
to the character of the sea bottom offthe coast of the United
States south of Cape Hatteras, and based upon the researches
of the Coast Surve} r . According to his statement, the princi-
pal constituent of the coast is silicious sand from the coast-
line to about the line of one hundred fathoms a limit which
coincides nearly with the inner edge of the Gulf Stream
throughout the greater part of its course. Outside of this
line is a whitish calcareous mud, containing globigerina, and

E

98 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

extending probably over the greater part of the ocean. South
of the Vineyard Islands, and to the eastern end of Long Isl-
and, the silicious sand is replaced by a kind of bluish mud
known as the Block Island soundings. A similar mud is
found off Sandy Hook in a range of depressions known as
mud-holes, which form a leading mark by which to find the
port of New York in thick weather. A few rocky patches
are found east of the neighborhood of New York, and a rocky
bottom occurs, sparingly, near Cape Fear, but otherwise the
sand is pretty uniform, varying only in the size of its grain.
On the inner edge of the Gulf Stream there is a deposit of
green sand composed of the cast-off foraminifera.

DIMINUTION IN THE SIZE OF SWISS GLACIERS.

Owing to various climatological causes, a remarkable de-
crease in the lower borders of the Swiss glaciers took place
during the year 1870, and careful trigonometrical measure-
ments of their summits revealed a corresponding depression.
One ice-peak in the Tyrolese Alps, which formerly was a lit-
tle over eleven thousand Vienna feet in height, has been re-
duced, within a few years past, to the extent of eighteen and
a half English feet, leaving only three instead of four points
in these Alps reaching the former altitude. 7 (7, G 71, v., 304.

LAND-SLIDES.

During the present year there has been an unusual number
of land-slides and sinkings of the ground over considerable
areas in different parts of the country, one of the most strik-
ing being the dropping out, so to speak, of a portion of the
harbor of St. John, New Brunswick, last winter. Quite late-
ly, again, three acres of land on the IJelaware division of the
Erie Railway suddenly sank below the ground to the depth
of about forty feet, leaving the tops of the trees just visible
above the surface. As an instance of a more gradual sinking
of an extended region, it is said that the islands of Jersey and
Guernsey, in the British Channel, have subsided to the extent
of forty feet in five hundred years.

CONNECTION OF EARTHQUAKES W r ITH MAGNETIC CURRENTS.

Mr. Varley has lately expressed the belief that many earth-
quakes are due to the action of magnetic currents through

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 99

r

the body of the earth, basing this impression upon the fre-
quent coincidence of violent disturbances of the magnetic
needle with earthquake shocks. This view is corroborated
by a recent communication of Professor Sumichrast, an emi-
nent naturalist residing in Mexico, who expresses the opinion
that it will not be far from the truth to state that the major-
ity of earthquakes experienced in Mexico are due to magnetic
agencies rather than volcanic, the concurrent deviation of the
magnetic needle, the sudden heating of the atmosphere, etc.,
seeming to point to magnetic action.

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN ECUADOR.

In a recent report of the governor of the province of Leon
to the general government of Ecuador, it is stated that in
February, 1869, noises were heard on the mountains of the
Western Cordilleras in the vicinity of Cotopaxi, and that
immense masses of earth and rock were thrown out, while
springs of water burst forth in such quantity that the rivers
were overflowed and much damage done, the phenomena be-
ing unaccompanied, however, by earthquakes. The climate,
too, seemed to have become much hotter than previously,
many kinds of plants having flowered that had never done so
before, and the sugar-cane being fit to cut in twenty-four
months instead of thirty. Since 1869 the springs have all
dried up, and the volcano has become inactive, and from these
indications it is feared that a new disturbance is breeding;
which may produce great damage on breaking out. Panama
Star and Herald, June 1, 1871.

GEOLOGY OF THE ALPS.

Les Mondes for October 5 coutains elaborate articles by
Elie de Beaumont and Sismondi upon the geology of the
Alps, in connection with the Mont Cenis Tunnel, in which full
details are given of the structure of this mountain chain, and
of the history of the enterprise connected with its perforation.

In regard to the geology of the Alps, Mr. Sismondi sums
up with the following conclusions : first, that the anthracitif-
erous rocks of the Alps constitute three groups, differing
from each other in the nature of their rocks, in variance of
level in their beds, and in the remains of organic substances
which they contain ; second, the order in which the rocks

100 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

succeed each other, from below above, is the same as that in
which they were originally deposited; third, the contortion
of the beds is a purely local incident, the folds of one group
never extending to another associated with it ; fourth, the
three groups of rocks are folded simultaneously in the form
of the letter V that is to say, like the sides of a boat, a fold-
ing which does not alter the original order ; fifth, the vestiges
of carboniferous plants have hitherto been found in only two
groups, the lower and upper ; sixth, in the middle group ani-
mal remains of the three liassic orders have hitherto been
alone found, and these mixed together, all equally well pre-
served, and in the upper benches some remains of the oolitic
period ; seventh, in the inferior group the rocks with vegeta-
ble impressions are associated with others containing casts
of liassic mollusks, which are entirely wanting in the upper
group ;. eighth, impressions of leaves predominate in the low-
er group, and of stems in the upper. Besides these, in the
lower group there are found scarcely any traces of anthracite,
while this combustible is very abundant in the upper group.
For these and some other reasons, which our space will not
permit us to reproduce, Mr. Sismondi is led to assent to the
inference of Mr. De Beaumont, that the three groups of rocks
in question belong to one and the same geological formation,
namely, the Jurassic. 3 B, October 5, 1871, 64.

OIL IN NOVA SCOTIA.

According to a recent account, a company which has been
boring near Lake Ainslie, in Inverness County, Cape Breton,
struck oil a short time ago at a depth of 5C0 feet, with every
prospect of securing an ample supply. The discovery has
created quite a fever in Nova Scotia, and companies are being
formed, and large tracts of land secured, for the purpose of
going into the oil business. N.Y. Shipping List, Dec. 28, 1870.

NEW VARIETY OF CANNEL COAL.

A new and remarkable variety of cannel coal has recently
been announced in the American Gas-Light Journal as Inn-
ing been lately discovered on the Red Bank River, in Arm-
strong County, Pennsylvania. It is a variety of cannel coal,
but has the curious peculiarity that when cut, or even rub-
bed with a knife-blade, it assumes a brilliant lustre precisely

E. MINERALOGY AND TECHNOLOGY. 101

like plumbago. It easily streaks paper, the streak having a
slightly olive-brown tinge, and being indelible by India-rub-
ber. As a combustible it is of excellent quality, and as such
will doubtless be soon brought to the notice of the public.
Gas-Light Journal, December 3, 1870.

GUANO IX THE LOBOS ISLANDS.

A scientific commission in the interest of the government
of Peru has lately been investigating the guano deposits of
the Lobos Islands ; and it is reported that the result of their
inquiries has been satisfactory, and that immense quantities
of very rich guano, equal, if not superior to that of the Chin-
cha Islands, have been observed. The analyses of samples
are said to have yielded over thirteen per cent, of ammonia.
Panama Star and Herald, November 2, 1871, 7.

FORMATION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COAST.

Professor Shaler' considers that the Chesapeake and Dela-
ware bays, like many of the deep gorges in Switzerland and
elsewhere, were formed by the action of ice, and that the ex-
istence of Cape Hatteras is due to the uplifting of the rocks
on which Richmond is situated. The sand-bars on the coast
he believes to have been formed by the material dug out of
the Delaware and Chesapeake bays by this ice action, and
worked southward by the united force of the floods and cur-
rents. He finds that, after we -pass these bars, south of Wel-
don the sea-bottom is totally distinct in character, being pure-
ly submarine, and formed by the action pf the sea. He points
out the existence of a rise and fall of the coast at different
portions of its extent ; this, in the most recent geological pe-
riod, amounting at Charleston, South Carolina, to from 50 to
60 feet ; in Maine to 200 feet ; and to a still greater degree on
the coast of Labrador. As a general rule, he thought there
was evidence to prove that, taking a line from the centre of
the continent to the centre of the sea, the sea-floor was com-
ing up and the high elevations were coming down.

Mr. Hyatt states that observations made by the Coast Sur-
vey showed that the coast of Long Island Sound, and south-
ward in New Jersey, has been sinking, while the Florida Keys
are rising ; and Mr. Xiles remarked that, from the earliest
times, in the Adirondacks and different points southerly, there

102 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

had been peninsulas corresponding in position to Florida, and
that this is simply the most southern, and latest of a succes-
sion from north to south. Pr. Boston S. Nat. Hist., February.

FOSSIL FOREST IN CALIFORNIA.

Professor Marsh, in the Journal of Science, referred to a
locality in California abounding in fossil trees to such an ex-
tent as to constitute a veritable forest. The region in ques-
tion is sitting on a high, rocky ridge in Napa County, Cali-
fornia, near Calistoga Hot Springs, and about ten miles from
the summit of Mount St. Helena. The ridge itself belongs to
the Coast Range series, and forms the divide between the
Napa and Santa Rosa valleys. It is about two thousand feet
in height, and is composed of metamorphic rock of the creta-
ceous period, overlaid unconformably by later tertiary strata,
consisting of light - colored, coarse sandstone, and beds of
stratified volcanic ashes. A careful examination showed that
the trees on the surface of the ground had been weathered
out of the volcanic tufa and sandstone, and consequently
were of the tertiary age ; and also that there remained still
imbedded in the volcanic tufa, etc., an extensive forest of
very large trees, stretching over a great area. Some of the
trees were of great size, a portion of one having been traced
for a length of sixty-three feet, with a diameter of seven feet
nearer its smaller end. Another tree indicated an original
diameter of not less than twelve feet. All were prostrate, and
had apparently been thrown down by the volcanic current
which covered them. Many were much decayed internally
and worm-eaten before they were buried. All of the wood
was silicified, probably by means of hot alkaline waters con-
taining silica in solution a frequent result of volcanic action.

A careful examination of the wood obtained at this locali-
ty showed no essential difference in structure from that of
the modern red-woods of California (of the genus Sequoia).
No other fossils were met with, which rendered it somewhat
difficult to fix the precise epoch; but it is considered proba-
ble by the professor that the trees belonged to the, pliocene
period. The origin of the volcanic material which covered
the forest could not be ascertained, although it was supposed
to have been derived from Mount St. Helena, which is the
nearest volcanic peak. 4Z>, April, 1871.

F. GEOGRAPHY. 103

F. GEOGRAPHY.

PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

A recent number of The Academy contains a notice, by
Keith Johnston, Jun., of a collection of essays by Oscar Pes-
chel, composed of a series of articles published in Aicsland, a
weekly journal of geography and anthropology, of which Dr.
Peschel was editor until quite recently, when he was succeed-
ed by Dr. Bocmeister, and still more lately by Fr. von Hell-
wald. The subjects discussed in these essays consist of cer-
tain problems in comparative geography, in this instance re-
stricted more to the purely physical conditions of the earth
than is the case in the well-known work of Carl Ritter,which
Peschel thinks should be entitled " Geographical Theology,
or an Attempt to Penetrate the Design of the Creator from
a Study of his Works." Various subjects are treated of in
this series, among the more noteworthy of which, according
to Mr. Johnston, may be mentioned that on the formation of
fiords, which are deep and precipitous cuttings into a steep
coast, generally at a high angle, and are usually aggregated
together considerably wherever they occur. They are found
only on the coasts of Europe and America, and mostly on
west or north coasts, being confined in Europe to regions
north of the fifty-first parallel ; on the east coast of America
to the forty-fourth, and on the west coast to above the forty-
eighth degree. In the southern hemisphere no fiords occur
within a limit of forty-one degrees from the equator. On a
careful examination of these fiords, their bounds are found to
agree with the winter isothermal lines, none of them occur-
ring in any warmer zone than that shut off by a yearly tem-
perature of 50 Fahr. Within this space, however, they nev-
er fail to appear where a steep coast-line and heavy rain-fall
are seen to exist together. In general they are either chan-
nels through which glaciers find their way at present to the
sea, or show marks of having been formerly occupied by them.

In answer to the question whether these physical features
may'not have been produced by glaciers, Dr. Peschel responds

104 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

that they mark the outlines of a former and now retreating
glacial covering, which lias protected these remains of 'still
earlier upheavals from the weathering and degradation which
has befallen any such raised and broken surfaces in warmer
regions.

In another essay Dr. Peschel opposes the theory of the ex-
istence of mountains and valleys in the sea bed correspond-
ing to the inequalities of this character observed on the land,
and maintains that every island is either the unsubmerged
height of a sinking portion of the continent nearest to which
it lies, identifiable as a former portion of the main land by its
geological structure, its fauna, or its flora, or else that it has
been independently raised by volcanic force or by the labors
of the coral insect.

In another chapter Dr. Peschel opposes the idea that the
mountain ranges have been formed by outbursts of incandes-
cent lava ; but finds in chemistry, the power needed for the
result, especially in the combinations of carbonic acid and
silica, which produce a chemical change resulting in the re-
duction in specific gravh^, and a considerable increase in the
volume of the mass.

From a careful study of the subject, Dr. Peschel thinks he
can show that since the tertiary period the continents have
tended to add to their extent northward and westward, and
to lose by submergence to the south and east, the gain in the
one case being exactly counterbalanced by the loss in the
other, the proportions of land and water remaining the same.
He also considers it to be a popular fallacy that the destruc-
tion of forests reduces the rain-fall on the land, and thinks it
useless to attempt planting in those countries in which woods
have not flourished naturally in historic times. This idea,
however, Mr. Johnston very sensibly opposes as being contra-
ry to well-established facts. 13 A, June 1,1871,286.

EXPEDITION OF THE HASSLER.

The daily papers of the past summer have kept their read-
ers advised of the preparation of the great exploring expedi-
tion upon which Professor Agassiz has been expecting to en-
gage during the voyage of the Coast Survey steamer Hass-
ler from Boston to San Francisco, by way of the Straits of
Magellan. The expedition was originally to start as early as

F. GEOGRAPHY. 105

July or August, and in that event the exploration in ques-
tion would have commenced off the coast of the United States.
Owing, however, to unexpected delays, the vessel has but re-
cently fitted out and reported at Boston, where she has been
detained, undergoing alterations of her machineiy. We have
already noticed the general plan and objects of the expedi-
tion. The scientific corps, as will be remembered, consists
of Professor and Mrs. Agassiz, Count Pourtales, Ex-President
Hill, of Cambridge, Dr. White, Mr. James Blake, and Dr. Stein-
dachner, each gentleman having special charge of a particu-
lar department of the work, and interested in its successful
accomplishment. The vessel itself is under the command of
Captain P. C. Johnson, with Messrs. Kennedy and Day as lieu-
tenants. Owing to the lateness of the season, the original
plan of making extended explorations in the West Indies and
off the eastern coast of South America has necessarily been
modified, and the vessel will probably proceed almost direct-
ly to the Falkland Islands and the Straits of Magellan, there
to commence the comprehensive investigations proposed, as
otherwise a sufficient share of the summer season of the
Straits could not be secured. The Atlantic Ocean work thus
given up will, in all probability, partly, at least, be performed
by the A. D. Bache, a consort of the Hassler, next year. Bos-
ton Advertiser ', JV. Y. Tribune, etc.

AGASSIZ'S PROPHECY.

Just before the departure of the United States Coast Sur-
vey exploring steamer Hassler upon its scientific mission,
Professor Agassiz addressed a communication to the Super-
intendent of the Coast Survey, in which he ventured to as-
sume the character of a prophet by stating in advance what
it was probable would crown their efforts in the way of dis-
covery.

The professor makes this communication in the hope of
showing within what limits natural history has advanced to-
ward that point of maturity when science may anticipate the
discovery of facts. Basing his expectations upon the ascer-
tained principles of science, and taking into consideration the
relationships between different forms of animal life, and the
succession of geological epochs, and in view of the very in-
teresting results of later deep-sea dredging expeditions in

E 2

106 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

the North Atlantic, lie anticipates the discovery, " from the
greater depth of the ocean, of representatives resembling
those types of animals which were prominent in earlier geo-
logical periods, or bear a closer resemblance to younger stages
of the higher members of the same types, or to the lower
forms which take their place nowadays."

' Making no suggestion in regard to mammals, he remarks
that if reptiles exist in the deep waters, they must be only
such as are related to the extinct types of the Jurassic pe-
riods, such as the ichthyosauri, plesiosauri, and pterodactyles;
but even of these he thinks there is very little probability
that any representatives are still alive.

Among the fishes he expects to discover some marine rep-
resentatives of the order of ganoids of the principal types
known from the secondary zoological period. Among the
sharks he thinks he shall find new forms allied to Cestracion,
or Hybodon, or Odontaspis, as also new genera of chinise-
roids; and among ordinary fishes the allies of Beryx, Elops,
etc. It is among the mollusks and radiates that objects of
the greatest interest will probably be met with ; and chief
among these will be nautiloid cephalopods-^perhaps even am-
monites and forms only known hitherto in the fossil state.
Among Acephala he anticipates the discovery of a variety
of forms resembling: those from the Jurassic and cretaceous
deposits in great variety, while Rudistes will take the place
of oysters, and brachiopods be found very abundant.

Among Crustacea it is not at all impossible that forms may
be found resembling trilobites ; while among Echinoderms
he confidently expects to meet with spatangoids approaching
Holaster, and others akin to Dysaster, etc.

A careful comparison of the members of the deep-sea fauna
of the northern and southern hemispheres will probably prove
of the greatest interest, and, judging from the peculiarities of
the land and shore fauna of Australia, it is likely that the ad-
jacent deep-sea animals will be equally divergent, and repre-
sent remarkable forms, and especially of an extremely an-
tique type.

The professor also hopes that much light will be thrown
upon the subject of the geology of the southern hemisphere,
and upon the general features of the drift, since all the phe-
nomena related to the glacial period must be found in the

F. GEOGRAPHY. 107

southern hemisphere with the same essential characteristics
as in the northern, yet with this difference, that every thing
must be reversed ; that is, the trend of the glacial abrasion
must be from the south northward ; the lee side of the abra-
ded rocks must be on the north side of hills and mountain
ranges, and the boulders must have been derived from rocky
exposures lying to the south of their present position. This
point, however, must be established by observation. The
professor thinks this will be found to be the case, with the
exception, perhaps, of the present glaciers of Tierra delFuego
and Patagonia.

In reply to the possible inquiry as to what the question of
drift has to do with deep-sea dredging, he remarks that the
connection is closer than may at first appear. If drift is not
of glacial origin, but the product of marine currents, its for-
mation at once becomes a matter for the Coast Survey to in-
vestigate ; but he expresses the belief that it will be found
that, so far from being accumulated by the sea, the drift of
the low lands of Patagonia has been worn away to its pres-
ent extent by the continued encroachment of the ocean in
the same manner as the northern shores of South America
and of Brazil have been.

EXPLORATIONS UNDER THE RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

Few establishments devoted to geographical research are
more industrious in fulfilling their mission than the Imperial
Russian Geographical Society of St. Petersburg, as shown by
the bulletins of progress published monthly by its secretary.
Among other enterprises recently enumerated as now under
prosecution are, first, the ethnological researches of Kusne-
row in the northwestern portion of the Russian empire; sec-
ond, investigations of the regions along the southern and
southwestern bank of Lake Onega ; third, geological investi-
gations in Finland and Sweden ; fourth, investigations into
the production of grain and the grain trade of Russia in the
interior provinces of the country; fifth, an ethnographical ex-
pedition into the region of the Southern Ussuri ; sixth, an ex-
pedition among the Tschuchchis ; seventh, a scientific expe-
dition along the Angara, for the purpose of investigating the
waterfalls of this river; eighth, a number of miscellaneous
enterprises of less moment ; and, finally, the important jour-

108 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ney of Count Micklucbo Maciay, to which we have referred
in a previous article. This, as already stated, has for its ob-
ject the investigation of the islands of the Pacific Ocean; and
the latest advices were received from Valparaiso on the 30th
of May last. The corvette Witjas, carrying the party, was
then on its way to New Guinea, which they hoped to reach
within three months. The occasion of'a brief halt of the ves-
sel at Valparaiso was taken to visit Santiago, and thence the
northern portion of the province of Aconcagua, this being a
mountain 6834 metres in height, and considered for a long
time to be volcanic, but, as was ascertained by the investiga-
tions of Piscis, having no volcanic peculiarities whatever.
3 C\ xxxvi., September 4, 1871, 861.

MARSHALL ISLANDS.

The Hydrographic Office of the bureau of Navigation of
the United States has lately published a monograph upon the
Marshall group of islands in the North Pacific. This group
consists of two chains of islands, lying nearly parallel with
each other, and running northwest and southeast from lati-
tude 1150'N. to 4 30' N., and from longitude 167 E. to 173
E., covering an area of over 350 by 400 miles in extent, and
very little known to navigators, the information hitherto on
record being considered very unreliable. The eastern chain
is known as the Radack, and the western as the Ralick, each
numbering from fifteen to eighteen groups of low coralline
islands, the greater number of which are fully formed atolls
that is, lagoons of greater or less extent with deep water
and anchorages, surrounded by a chain of reefs, connecting
islands, with one or more passages through the reefs into the
lagoons, most of which are navigable for large vessels, besides
which there are numerous boat passages.

The earliest discovery of this archipelago is said to have
been by Laevedra in 1529, and the next visit made to them
was by Anson in 1742. Since then the islands have been
touche'd at by different navigators at various times, although
until the appearance of the report just referred to but little
definite information had been brought together of the archi-
pelago as a group. A missionary establishment was started
on one of these islands in 1857, which continues to be suc-
cessful to the present time. The inhabitants numbered, at

F. GEOGRAPHY. 109

the latest accounts, 10,000. They are expert navigators, and
perform journeys throughout the group. They are dark, with
straight hair, and are said to be intelligent and hospitable.
Hep. Hydrograpliic Office.

AURORA AND SUNDAY ISLANDS.

It has been already announced in our papers, by advices
from London, that Aurora Island, in the New Hebrides group,
situated about fifteen degrees east of Australia, had lately
disappeared entirely, without leaving any trace of its exist-
ence ; and the fact, it- is said, has been corroborated by an
American whaler which lately arrived at Honolulu. This isl-
and was one of the most fertile of the group, and it is stated
to have been thirty-six miles long by upward of five miles in
breadth. In this same connection it may be mentioned that
the American whaler Milton, lately arrived at the Bay of Isl-
ands, in Northern New Zealand, reported that when they
touched at Sunday Island it was on fire in all directions, and
had been in that state for nearly forty days. During the
heavy shocks of earthquakes preceding and after the erup-
tions two islands were thrown up in the harbor, one of them
being, as nearly as could be judged, about three hundred feet
high. Two families were living on Sunday Island, and on
the arrival of the whaler begged to be taken away, as the
heat was so intense and the sulphurous smell so strong that
all the animals about them were destroyed, and their fate
must have been the same if they had remained much longer.
They were accordingly carried to the Norfolk Islands, and
left there in safety. -New Bedford Mercury.

ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.

The great degree of activity exhibited within the past few
years in the way of arctic exploration has revived in the
minds of various persons the propriety of endeavoring to
solve the remaining problems of the south polar regions. A
special interest attaches to this inquiry in connection with
the impending transit of Venus in 1874, since, for the success-
ful answer to all the questions depending upon the observa-
tion of this phenomenon, it is of the utmost importance to se-
cure antarctic stations of high latitude as remote as possible
from the points now known to be accessible.

110 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Among those who have interested themselves more par-
ticularly with this question is Dr. Neumayer, who has brought
it to the consideration of the 'Academy of Science of Vienna
and the Academy of Science of Pesth ; and there is now some
reason to believe that the Austro-IIungarian empire will take
up the subject at an early day, and dispatch an expedition,
both for the purpose of scientific discovery and also for ascer-
taining whether an astronomical station for the observation
of the phenomenon referred to can be obtained. In addition
to the points already selected namely, Kerguelen Land and
Auckland Islands a third is especially desirable in the very
region where there is the most probability of penetrating to
a high latitude.

For a number of years scientific inquiry was quite rife to-
ward and in the antarctic circle, discovery following discov-
ery in quite rapid succession. The most brilliant period was
that extending from 1838 to 1843, when three great national
expeditions, under the command of Admiral D'Urville for
France, Sir James Ross for England, and Captain Wilkes for
the United'States, prosecuted their researches. It is hardly
necessary to attempt a summary of what was accomplished
by those intrepid navigators, or to discuss the question as to
whether the lands discovered by Captain "VVilkes were conti-
nental or insular. One discovery of great moment, by Sir
James Ross, was that of active volcanoes in South Victoria
Land having a height of 12,000 feet, access to which was
barred by a wall of solid ice 200 feet in height, along which
he sailed for hundreds of miles without finding an opportuni-
ty to penetrate farther into the interior. Since 1843, with
the single exception of the voyage of the Pagoda, under Cap-
tain Moore, in 1845, little, if any thing, has been done to ex-
tend the area of research beyond the critical collation of log-
books of sailors with a view to determine the precise nature
of the ocean currents and the temperature of the sea, from
which, however, important generalizations have been derived.

Of late years, as already stated, renewed attention has been
directed toward the antarctic lands, largely in consequence
of the publications of the Meteorological Institute of the
Netherlands, in which it is shown that the current of warm
water which comes from the Straits of Mozambique, and is
known further south as the Agulhas Stream, does not, as orig-

F. GEOGEAPHY. HI

inally supposed, continue round the Cape of Good Hope, but
at the southern point of Africa bends around toward the east,
and unites with the waters that strike along the coast of Aus-
tralia, and in the region of Kerguelen Land turns more and
more to the south, having been traced in that direction as far
as the fiftieth decree of south latitude. How much further
it goes has not yet been ascertained ; but it is extremely
probable, judging from the analogies of the currents of the
northern hemisphere, that this may penetrate to quite a high
latitude, and that it is along its path that researches are to
be prosecuted which will lead more or less near to the heart
of the mystery that now surrounds the south pole.

The discoveries of Ross and Weddell are really due to
their persistency in following the warm currents the first
from New Zealand, and the other to the south of Cape Horn.
There is the more hope of a satisfactory result in this experi-
ment, as little special effort hitherto has been made in that
direction. And if, as already stated, it is in that region that
the best location for a third antarctic astronomical station is
to be found, additional zest will be given to the inquiry. It
is quite probable that one result of a successful exploration
will be to limit -very materially the supposed mass of land,
as many of our best geographers maintain the existence of an
archipelago of islands, firmly united by bands of ice, rather
than a continent. This is an a priori conclusion, fortified by
general climatological analogies, and can only be substanti-
ated by actual observations. 1 C\ xxni., 353.

CARPENTER ON" MEDITERRANEAN CURRENTS.

An interesting: communication in regard to the currents of
the Mediterranean has lately been made in various journals,
by Dr. William B. Carpenter, based upon the result of his ex-
periments made on board the Porcupine during the deep-sea
sounding surveys in the Mediterranean in the past year. We
have already given our readers a synopsis of the results ob-
tained in the summer of 1869 on board the Porcupine, during
the expeditions of which Dr. Carpenter was also a member ;
and although the work of 1870 does not include dredgings at
such enormous depths as three miles, it is scarcely inferior in
value. One of the most important points reached was the
determination of a deep-sea current in the Mediterranean run-

112 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ning to the westward, as the counterpart of the surface cur-
rent from the eastward through the straits. This had been
suspected for a long time, in view of the fact that a current
was continually entering the straits from the Atlantic; it be-
ing, of course, readily inferred that this surface current was
to restore the level of the Mediterranean, lowered by the im-
mense amount of evaporation. In the opinion of some, the
effect was simply to concentrate the salt of this inland sea
and cause it to saturate the lower strata, and perhaps even
to form solid beds of salt at the bottom. This supposition,
however, can easily be proved to be untenable. The method
adopted by the Porcupine party to show the existence of an
outward under-current consisted in the use of what was call-
ed the " current drag," an apparatus so constructed as to pre-
sent a resisting surface so much larger than that of the boat
from which it was suspended, that although the latter might
tend to move in the direction of the surface current, this
would be counteracted by the action of the under-current
upon the " drag." In some instances the effect was simply
to retard the velocity of the surface movement, but in oth-
ers the boat was actually carried against the surface current
by that bf a lower depth.

A chemical examination of the water brought up from great
depths in the Mediterranean proved, as suspected, that the
deep-sea water was more salt than that at the surface, and
that, consequently, the tendency to saturation existed, but
nothing could be found to show the existence of a bed of salt
at the bottom; and strata of water of less density were met
with below those of greater density. It will, therefore, be
readily understood that the outward current in large part car-
ries with it the excess of salt produced by the surface evapo-
ration referred to. The cause of the circulation itself is due,
according to Dr. Carpenter, to purely hydrostatic action, which
he explains as follows : The water of the Mediterranean is
continually losing by evaporation a larger amount than is re-
turned to it by rain or rivers, and consequently the inflow
from the Atlantic must take place to keep up this level. If
this inflow consisted of fresh water, the total quantity of salt
in the Mediterranean would remain the same, and the densi-
ty would therefore undergo no increase. But as the upper
current of salt water brings in a certain quantity of salt, in

F. GEOGRAPHY. 113

addition to that which the Mediterranean basin previously
contained, the density of this water is increased, and a col-
umn of it reaching to any given depth becomes heavier than
a corresponding column of Atlantic water. Consequently
the excess of downward pressure will displace the lower por-
tion of the column of water, which will flow outward as an
under-current. The withdrawal of a portion of the lower
stratum will produce a renewed reduction of the surface lev-
el, taken in connection with continued evaporation, and this
will occasion a further inflow of Atlantic water, which in
turn undergoes concentration. And this interchange will be
maintained perpetually, there being, on the one hand, a tend-
ency to the restoration of the level lowered by excessive
evaporation, and on .the other a tendency to a restoration of
the equilibrium disturbed by excess of pressure. The inflow
and outflow will thus keep each other in check, so that neither
the lowering of the level nor the increase of density will ever
exceed a very limited amount.

This explanation, Dr. Carpenter thinks, received additional
confirmation by the phenomena observed by the currents of
the Baltic. Here an immense amount of fresh water is re-
ceived from the lakes and rivers, which tends to dilute the
waters of the sea. An outflow is established from the sur-
face, which, of course, being continued without any counter-
acting tendency, would in time wash out every particle of
salt, were it not for an under-current which brings back into
jt the salt water from the North Sea. Thus, while the sur-
face current is tending to reduce the level of the Baltic to
that of the North Sea, the influx of fresh water into the Bal-
tic, and the outflow of a portion of the salt water must tend
to diminish the density; and the equilibrium is maintained
by the inward passage of a body of salt water from the
depths. The case is, therefore, exactly the reverse of that of
the Mediterranean, but such as would be expected in view of
the hypothesis advanced by Dr. Carpenter. 12 A, November
30 and April 6 ; also Contemporary Review.

CARPEXTER OX OCEAX CURRENTS.

In a previous article we have given Dr. Carpenter's ac-
count of the outward deep-sea current from the Mediterra-
nean into the Atlantic, corresponding with the surface cur-

114 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE ANDINDUSTRY.

rent flowing inward, together with his explanation of the
physical cause of this circulation. The phenomena observed
have led him to suggest some striking views in reference to
the currents of the ocean, especially those known as streams,
and also the general movement of the entire body of water.
The Gulf Stream of the North Atlantic he considers to be
due by the impulse given by the trade winds to the superfi-
cial layer of the portion of the Atlantic over which they
blow, creating what is known as the equatorial current, which
moves constantly from the coast of Africa toward that of
America, the northern portion entering the Caribbean Sea
and the Gulf of Mexico, where it receives a further accession
of heat, and undergoes a change of direction, in consequence
of the resistance offered by the American coast-line ; thence
issuing in a northeasterly direction through the narrow strait
between Florida and the Bahama Islands. In its course ob-
liquely across the North Atlantic Ocean the Gulf Stream
gradually spreads itself out, diminishing in depth as it in-
creases in breadth ; and when it approaches the Banks of
Newfoundland, one portion of it bends round the Azores, and
returns in the equatorial current, thus completing the shorter
circuit of that horizontal movement of which the primum mo-
bile is the action of the trade winds. The other portion con-
tinues its northeasterly coast past the Banks, there meeting
with arctic surface currents which tend to neutralize its
movement and to reduce its temperature. Of these currents,
the principal, formed by the junction of the Labrador and
Greenland currents, sweeps southward along the Atlantic
sea-board of the United States, not only cutting this off from
the influence of the Gulf Stream, but reducing its winter tem-
perature considerably below the normal temperature of the
latitude.

This current, however, is quite different from the general
movement of the entire Atlantic Ocean, which, he thinks,
takes place under precisely the same conditions as those
which he has pointed out in the case of the Mediterranean.
lie simply substitutes in the explanation the polar basin for
the Mediterranean, cooled down by the withdrawal of solar
heat, and for the Atlantic the equatorial ocean. The antago-
nistic conditions of temperature being constantly sustained,
a constant interchange between polar and equatorial waters,

F. GEOGRAPHY. 115

through the seas of the temperate zone, may be predicted as
a physical necessity. The reduction in temperature of the
polar column, the whole of which may be brought down by
the continued exposure of the surface to atmospheric cold al-
most to its freezing point, must diminish its height while aug-
menting its density, and thus the water of the surrounding
area must flow in to maintain the level thus lowered. But
when the column has been restored to an equality of height,
it will possess such an excess of weight that its downward
pressure must force out a portion of its deeper water, and
thus an outflow of ice-cold water will be occasioned from the
polar toward the equatorial area, over the sea-bed of the
deepest oceanic basins, while at the same time there will be
a continual indraught of warmer surface water into the polar
basin, which can only be supplied by a general poleward
movement of the upper stratum of the equatorial water.
These movements will not have the character of currents ;
for it is .only where the communication between the two
bodies of water takes place through a narrow strait that dif-
ferences so inconsiderable can give rise to a perceptible move-
ment between them. But the movement is not the less real
when diffused than it is when concentrated ; and the same
vertical circulation would take place between the two ex-
tremities, or between the centre and circumference of the
same continuous basin, under opposite conditions as to heat
and cold, as would exist if they were connected by a com-
paratively narrow channel or communication. Contempora-
ry Review, 1871.

THE SARGASSO SEA.

Dr. Collingwood has recently published an interesting ac-
count of the Sargasso Sea of the North Atlantic, one of sev-
eral immense areas of floating meadows of sea-weed found in
mid-ocean in different parts of the globe. The one to which
our author refers is that which occupies the greater portion
of that breadth of the Atlantic Ocean between the coast of
Africa and the region of the West Indies, from 20 to about
65 of west longitude, and from the parallel of 20 to that of
45. This area is compared to that of the Mississippi Val-
ley ; and this immense bed of floating sea-weed was at one
time supposed to be derived from plants originally attached

116 ANNUAL KECOKD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

to the bottom, and subsequently torn off by some severe
storm; but it is now understood that the plants composing
it increase by rapid growth, although in this condition they
never produce either roots or fruit. It is therefore supposed,
from their multiplying in this manner, that they are a pecul-
iar form of one or more species described by botanists, which
produce fruit only when rooting in the shallower waters,
and that this growth and development may continue indefi-
nitely for an immense number of years.

This meadow of sea-weed is remarkable not only for the
immense extent of vegetation, but for the great variety of
animal life abounding in its midst. Innumerable species of
Crustacea, many annelids, mollusca, polyzoa, polyps, and fish-
es are found in it. Investigations of patches of the weed al-
ways furnish a fruitful field of research to naturalists. It is
mentioned as an interesting circumstance that all the animals
found harboring in the Sargasso sea-weed are of the same
general tint as that of the weed itself, assimilating themselves
so closely that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them
at first sight. It is not at all improbable that, in view of
the immense amount of minute animal life in these locali-
ties, many of our wandering fishes, such as various species of
mackerel, etc., find in such places those breeding regions that
we have hitherto sought for in vain.

The position of the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic, as well as
similar patches in other oceans, is believed to be determined
by the course of the greater oceanic currents, as it occupies
the eddy formed by the northern drift of the Gulf Stream
toward the west, and its southward branch, which is deflected
from the Banks of Newfoundland, and extends to the south,
by the way of the Azores, along the coast of Africa.

Another tract of the Sargasso Sea is found in the Pacific,
off the coast of Lower California; and still another extends
along in the antarctic waters from Australia to the Falkland
Islands. 9 A, October, 1870, 383.

CHARACTER OF KARA SEA.

Dr. Petermaniijin a late article on the opening up of a por-
tion of the northern Polar Sea by the voyages and observa-
tions of sundry Norwegian navigators in 1870, states that
the most important result of these expeditions consists in

F. GEOGRAPHY. 117

their showing a complete melting of the ice in the whole of
the Sea of Kara, and that the few floating cakes of winter ice
remaining in midsummer do not at all affect the navigabil-
ity, nor the successful pursuits of hunting and fishing. Sev-
eral maps accompanying the memoirs show the precise con-
dition of the temperature and other physical features of the
Kara Sea during the different months throughout the year.
17 C,Jove)nbe);1810, 105.

EXPLORATION OP EASTERN ASIA.

Yon Heuglin, the well-known explorer in Africa, has lately
been turning his attention to Arctic researches, and in the
summer of 1870, in company with Count Zeil, left Hamburg
on the 13th of June, and Tromso, in Norway, on the 3d of
July, for the purpose of examining the unknown region of
Eastern Spitzbergen. With a small boat of only thirty-one
tons, and manned by seven Norwegian sailors, they reached
the eastern coast of Spitzbergen, determined the position of
Gillis Land, and extended greatly our knowledge of the re-
gion from 77 to 79 north latitude. They passed through
the Walter Thymer Straits, which were at one time supposed
to be impassable, and made collections of various kinds, in-
cluding rocks and fossils, among which was a saurian eight-
een feet in length 17 (7, 1870, 306.

RUSSIAN EXPLORATIONS.

Preparations continue to be made on the part of the Rus-
sian government, assisted by its scientific men, for the great
polar expeditions of 1872 and 1873. Among the points to
which special attention is to be directed are, first, in the re-
gion to the west of Nova Zembla, the determination of the
cold and warm currents between the Murmanian coast and
Nova Zembla; second, to decide the southern limit of the
polar ice, and to take measurements of the deep seas; third,
to ascertain the extension of the Gulf Stream, and what be-
comes of it when it meets the polar ice; fourth, to learn es-
pecially the distribution of the Gulf Stream along the coast
of Nova Zembla; fifth, to fix accurately the extension of cer-
tain parts of the coast of Northwestern Nova Zembla. To
the east and northeast the points to be inquired into are, first,
the expansion of the Kara Sea, and all that portion of the sea

118 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

nearest to it on the east ; second, to penetrate northeasterly
to the limit of the polar ice ; third, at least to make an effort
to get as far as possible to the east, and to explore the re-
gions along the mouths of the Siberian rivers; fourth, to
make accurate geographic determinations along the least-
known portions of the Siberian coast; fifth, to prosecute stud-
ies in regard to the hunting ventures of the Norwegians and
Russians in Nova Zembla. These two regions of country
will be intrusted to two different sailing vessels respectively,
each provided with a competent commander, a specialist in
physical geography, and a zoologist. The experience gained
by these expeditions during 1872 is to be utilized still further
in a much more extended and more completely equipped ex-
ploration in 1873, in which the same persons will take part.
3 C, September 25, 1871, 934.

Rosenthal's exploring expedition.

In a lately published number of the Mittheilungen Dr.Pe-
termann gives an account of the exploring expedition of Ro-
senthal, of Bremen, into the Siberian Arctic Sea. This gen-
tleman has been distinguished for some years past by his zeal
in prosecuting a trading business in the high north, and for
the extent to which he has connected with this inquiries into
the natural history and physics of that region. The results
obtained in Spitzbergen by Dr. Bessels in the voyage of one
of his vessels (the Albert) are well known. During the past
year he sent out the Bienenkorb, manned by Norwegian sail-
ors, and under the command of the Norwegian Captain Mel-
sam, to prosecute the seal fishery in the north, an experiment
attended with such success that, after a short absence, the
vessel returned with 6500 seals. During the present year
Ilerr Rosenthal chartered the Germania, the well-known Ger-
man exploring ship, and has sent her out, under the command
of Captain Melsam and his party, accompanied by Messrs.
Von Heuglin and Aagard, with an outfit and provisions for
fifteen months, and all the necessary astronomical and phys-
ical apparatus. The vessel is to proceed direct to Nova Zem-
bla, passing the Straits of Matotschkin into the Kara Sea, so
as to reach the mouth of the Obi, and there to establish a
harbor and refuge for heavy weather. From this point op-
erations are to be carried on as far as possible toward the

F. GEOGRAPHY.

119

northeast, so as to reach the northernmost cape of Asia, as
well as the islands of New Siberia. In returning, the most
northern portions of the main land of Asia are to be visited,
and as many landings made as possible, especially near the
mouths of the Obi and Jenesei. Physical observations are
to be made on an extended scale, and large collections of ob-
jects of natural history gathered. Even should only a por-
tion of this plan be carried out, such as the exploration of
the region about the mouths of the Obi and Jenesei, much
will have been accomplished, but it is not improbable that
the entire programme will be completed.

The expedition left Bremen on the 25th of June, and pro-
ceeded first to Tonsberg, and then to TromsO, from which
point the latest advices, dated July 21, were transmitted.
The expedition was to continue its voyage on the 23d of
July, since which time no letters have been received. 17 (7,
1871,335.

NEWS FEOil THE HIGH NORTH.

We are in receipt of a circular letter from Dr. Petermann,
the eminent geographer of Gotha, containing more detailed
information in regard to the polar discoveries lately referred
to by the daily papers in the form of a brief telegram. It
will be remembered that in recent articles we have given an
account, among other arctic expeditions, of one under the di-
rection of* Messrs. Payer and Weyprecht, on the vessel called
the Ice Bear, which sailed from Tromso, in Norway, during
the past summer. The expedition returned to Tromso on the
3d of October, and dispatched a telegram to Dr. Petermann,
stating that in September they had found an open polar sea
between 42 and 60 east longitude from Greenwich, and that
they had followed this as far as the 79th degree of north lat-
itude and 43d of east longitude. Without giving any reason
for not proceeding farther, they state that their route was
probably much the most favorable one for reaching, the pole,
connecting, as they imagined it to do, with the open polar
sea north of Siberia, and toward the east.

An unintelligible portion of the dispatch of these gentle-
men was supposed to intimate that King Charles Land, east
of Spitzbergen and near Gillis Land, extended south to 77
12'. Dr. Petermann considers this information as of the ut-

120 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

most importance, especially in view of the fact that reports
from all the other polar expeditions of the present year indi-
cate a very unfavorable state of the ice. Full accounts of
these other expeditions will be published in a forthcoming
number of the Mittheilungen.

Dr. Petermann thinks the favorable condition of the ice for
navigation in these seas is caused by the action of the Gulf
Stream; and he refers to his map of 1870 (lately reproduced
by the United States Hydrographic Bureau, under Captain
Wyman), in which he lays down the Gulf Stream, between
75 and 76, as having a temperature, according to Dr. Bes-
sels, of over 41; while an arrow, inserted there to indicate
the direction of the stream, points exactly to the 79th degree
of north latitude and 49th of east longitude. Circular of
Dr. Petermann, October 10, 1871.

DISCOVERIES OF PAYER AND WEYPRECHT.

We have already made brief mention of the important an-
nouncement received from Messrs. Payer and Weyprecht, da-
ted at Tromso, of the discovery of open water between Spitz-
bergen and Nova Zembla, in a region before this believed to
be occupied entirely by ice, and have now the pleasure of
furnishing some additional details received from these gentle-
men by letter. Their report is addressed to the Association
for Geography and Statistics at Frankfort, and is dated at
Tromso on the 19th of October. Postponiiig*a more full ac-
count of their general adventures to a later period, they pro-
ceed at once to the announcement that in the space between
Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla, which had previously been
supposed inaccessible (and which, indeed, the Russian, Ger-
man, and Swedish expedition in 1868 had attempted to pen-
etrate without success), they entered a region almost entire-
ly free from any obstacles, and in which they reached a lati-
tude of 79 degrees without any apparent impediment to their
proceeding almost, if not quite, to the pole. As, however, the
Ice-Bear was merely a sailing vessel, and their provisions
were running low, they dared not venture any farther, and
accordingly returned.

They anticipate complete success, therefore, should the
great expedition, which is to be prosecuted next year, follow
in their course ; and they remark that the key to the appa-

F. GEOGRAPHY. 121

rent failure of explorations in this region is to be found in
the fact of their starting too early in the summer, and not re-
maining long enough in the autumn. They think that the
Gulf Stream, the current of which is clearly indicated, toward
the close of the summer breaks down the barrier of ice, and
clears a way into the open polar sea beyond.

The fact of their having been in the path of the Gulf
Stream they consider well established by the temperature of
the water (exceeding by from three to five degrees C. that
of the air), the frequency of clouds and the abundance of fog
and rainbows, the decided current to the northeast, the ultra-
marine blue of the water, so characteristic of the Gulf Stream,
the extraordinary richness in lower animals, etc.

In the beginning of autumn they infer that the Gulf Stream
leaves the coast of Nova Zembla and passes farther to the
west, or that it then expands so as to cover a greater area.
Another important result of their examinations was the dis-
covery of an enormous abundance of whales in the open sea
a fact which will doubtless induce our American whalers
seriously to consider the propriety of endeavoring to secure
the reward which is likely to crown the efforts of those who
may enter this new Polynia at the proper season.

During the expedition of the Ice-Bear a continued series
of observations was taken upon the temperature, the density
of the water at the surface and at various depths, the occur-
rence of drift-wood, the currents, deep-sea soundings, etc.
Many objects of interest were taken from the bottom, and
many valuable geological observations made. Circular of
Geographical Society of Frankfort.

EXPLORATIONS OF THE WHITE. SEA.

In a report of a zoological exploration made in the White
Sea and on the Murmanian coast in Lapland by Jarschinski
in 1869, lately published by Dr. Petermann, attention is called
to the fact that while in the tropical seas the highest devel-
opment of animal life is found near the surface, and diminish-
es with increasing depth, a precisely opposite state of things
is met with in the arctic seas. Thus, in the shallow portion
of the White Sea, animal life was extremely scanty, and it
was only in the deep bay of Condelac that an abundance was
met with. The same condition of things was found in a por-

F

122 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

tion of the Polar Sea, where, in the shallow bays of the Mar-
in anian coast, there was a comparatively poor fauna, while at
a greater depth namely, from 80 to 200 fathoms the vari-
ety was unexpectedly large.

All the large and more highly developed forms occurred at
great depths, certain echini, crabs, and sea spiders acquiring
comparatively colossal dimensions. Among the latter was a
species of pycnogonid which measured ten inches between
the tips of the outstretched arms. In fact, it was found that
the Polar Sea, along the Murmanian coast, was richer in ani-
mal life than any other part of the maritime portion of Euro-
pean Russia.

The close relationship of the animals of this region with
those of the Atlantic Ocean is believed to be a further proof
of the existence of a branch of the Gulf Stream on this coast,
and thus to substantiate the views of Petermann of the great
extent of this stream, as opposed to the ideas of Findlay,
who denies that the Gulf Stream proper has power enough
to reach the European coast or exercise any influence upon*
its climate, believing it to be completely destroyed near New-
foundland by the southwest polar current,, and not to be
traceable any farther. 17 (7, December, 1870,452.

EXPLORATIONS ABOUT NOVA ZEMBLA.

From the detailed report by Von Heuglin of his late expe-
dition, recently published by Petermann, we learn that the
north coast of Nova Zembla is erroneously laid down on the
maps, especially the northeastern cape, which should be
placed at a latitude of 77 8', and a longitude of 71 east.
He was surprised to find a temperature of 41 Fahr. in the
Matotshkin Strait, which cuts through Nova Zembla, and a
still higher degree eastward, in the Kara Sea. The latter
fact is ascribed to the temperature of the fresh-water currents
streaming forth from the mouths of the Obi and Yenisei,
which were met with as far out as the latitude of 75. An
abundance of the glass balls used by the Norwegians for the
floats of nets, etc., was found on the northwest ^coast of Nova
Zembla, which had undoubtedly been carried there from the
LofTodens.

Dr. Petermann calls attention to the very trifling cost of
this expedition of Von Heuglin compared with the impor-

F. GEOGRAPHY. 123

tant results which it accomplished, the total expense amount-
ing to only about $1000.-17 C, December, 1870,449.

GERMAN EXPLORATIONS IN GREENLAND.

Our readers will remember that the German exploring ex-
pedition which went out in 1869 for the purpose of arctic
discovery has lately returned home, the sailing vessel of the
expedition having been wrecked on the east coast of Green-
land, her entire crew, however, being saved. The steamer re-
turned in good condition. Enough of the results of the ex-
pedition have been published to furnish the means of judg-
ing, to some extent, of the advantages secured, which are
thought to be of great interest ; not the least being the ac-
quisition of a foothold of property in the north, possession
having been taken of a previously unoccupied portion of the
coast of Greenland, extending for about thirty German miles,
or from latitude 75 to latitude 77. An apology is made for
the absence of any considerable amount of actual discovery,
on account of the excessive rigor of the winds, this being
very much greater than that experienced in the neighboring
regions during the previous explorations on the part of En-
glish vessels. The portion of Greenland explored by this ex-
pedition is characterized by a very deep fiord, the head of
which was not reached in a distance of over eighty miles ;
and it was thought to be not impossible that it extended all
the way across to the water on the opposite side.

The most interesting feature of the land, however, was the
occurrence of extensive meadows, starred with flowers, with
butterflies and bees playing about them, and having large
herds grazing near by of reindeer and musk-oxen. The low-
est temperature experienced was about 58 F.,this occur-
ring on the 21st of February, 1870. The wind was found to
be of extraordinary severity, Robinson's anemometer, indica-
ting a rate of velocity of sixty-seven miles in the hour, which,
it was believed, would render sledging parties entirely im-
practicable. The auroral light, to the surprise of the behold-
ers, who expected to see it in the west or southwest, was ac-
tually in the southeast.

Among the geological discoveries were beds of brown coal
and numerous fossil remains. Deep-sea soundings were made,
and collections taken from a depth of 1500 fathoms. One

124 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

important conclusion arrived at by the expedition was that
small vessels were suited for polar exploration, and that it
would be madness to attempt, as is proposed by the French,
the use of a thousand-ton ship. Steamers, too, were believed
to be the only form of vessels suited for research on the east-
ern coast of Greenland, any thing like reaching the coast in
a sailing vessel being entirely out of the question. 3 (7, Octo-
ber 8,1870,981.

GREENLAND A CLUSTER OF ISLANDS.

Lieutenant Payer, well known for his geological investiga-
tions in the Alps, has lately communicated some facts in re-
gard to discoveries in Greenland by the late German expe-
dition, of which he was a member, and in this he calls at-
tention* especially to the probability of the hypothesis that
Greenland is essentially a congeries of islands similar to that
west of it, and not a huge continental mass, as has been sup-
posed by most authors. One strong evidence of this he con-
siders to be furnished by the deep inlet discovered by the ex-
pedition, previously unrecorded on any chart, and which re-
ceived the name of Emperor Francis Joseph's Fiord. This
was found to extend deep into the interior. of the land, con-
tinually opening into new arms, and widening in places until
it was traced out for over one third of the estimated breadth
of Greenland, and without any indication of coming to an
end. Indeed, in a southwesterly direction it opened out into
what looked like a great basin into which the fiord itself emp-
tied. The circumstance also that the saltness of the fiords is
generally greatly diminished by the fresh-water streams pour-
ing into them when they are simply cul de sacs, and the fact
that the great Greenland fiord, notwithstanding the enor-
mous addition of fresh water, retained all its saltness, point-
ed to a maritime communication with the opposite side of
the country.

Time was not allowed to the party to prosecute the explo-
ration of this supposed strait ; but it is believed, as stated,
that it finds its opposite opening in Baffin's Bay. Another
still more potent argument in favor of the assumption that
Greenland is a congeries of islands, and not a continent, was
found in the apparent absence of great longitudinal valleys,
such as usually characterize continents, these being entirely

F. GEOGRAPHY. 125

wanting in the northeastern part of Greenland. 3 (7,1870,
1245.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES FROM CAPTAIN HALL'S EXPEDITION.

Dr. Bessels, the director of the scientific corps of Captain
Hall's steamer Polaris, in a letter addressed to the president
of the National Academy of Sciences, dated Godhaven, Au-
gust 16, states that he had already made some important ob-
servations in regard to the physics of the northern seas, such
as a peculiar coloration of the water and an unexpectedly
high specific gravity, the maximum of density noticed being
1.028. His experiences with his colleagues, Mr. Bryan, the
astronomer, and Mr. Meyer, the meteorologist, have been very
satisfactory ; the former gentleman having made a number
of successful azimuth observations, and the latter approving
himself an excellent mathematician and an accomplished ob-
server, and an honor to the Signal Service, from which he
was detailed for duty with Captain Hall. This information
may perhaps serve in some measure to relieve the apprehen-
sions expressed by Dr. David Walker, in his Overland Month-
ly article on Captain Hall's expedition, in regard to the sci-
entific' results of the voyage. Letter from Dr. Hessels, Au-
gust 16,1871.

NORTHWEST PASSAGE MADE BY A WHALE.

The daily papers have lately referred in brief terms to the
recent capture of a whale in the Arctic Ocean with a har-
poon imbedded in its flesh that must have been implanted in
Davis's Straits. From a Honolulu paper we learn that the
whale in question was taken by the ship Cornelius Howland,
off Point Barrow, the northernmost cape of Alaska and of
the main land of North America. The harpoon was marked
" A. G.," referring, as was supposed, to the ship Ansel Gibbs,
of New Bedford, which has been engaged for ten or twelve
years in the whale fishery at Cumberland Inlet, in Davis's
Straits. Cases have before occurred of whales being captured
at Cumberland Inlet with harpoons in them that must have
been inserted in the Arctic Ocean, but this is said to be the
first instance authenticated in which the movement of the
whale was in the opposite direction. Although geographical
exploration has already proved the existence of a connection

126 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

by water between the eastern and western sides of America,
these occurrences tend to furnish an interesting corrobora-
tion of the fact. New Bedford Mercury .

SITUATION OF THE GESORIACUM OF THE ROMANS.

According to Professor Airy, the Gesoriacum of the histo-
rians of the Roman Empire is not the modern Boulogne-sur-
Mer, as has generally been supposed. On the contrary, he
thinks that Dunkirk has the best claim to identification with
the place in question. 15 A, November 12, 1870, 625.

DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS IN THE ADRIATIC.

As a result of some recent deep-sea explorations in the
Adriatic, Dr. Schmid announces that at depths of from 50 to
630 fathoms he found but little trace of animal life, excepting
the foraminifera, a fact which he attributes to the absence of
the great natural currents, to which the variety of animal life
in the depths of the Atlantic appears to be due. Of Bathyb-
ius, however, as Professor Huxley calls a peculiar amorphous
animal matter found at great depths, an enormous quantity
was brought up by every cast of the net below fifty fathoms.
These are always accompanied by coccoliths, one of the con-
stituents of the ancient chalk. 13-4, August 13,293.

BED OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

Captain Sherrard Osborne, well known as an arctic explor-
er, has lately presented a communication to the Royal Geo-
graphical Society of London in reference to the Atlantic sea-
bed. In this paper he states that the bottom of the North
Atlantic is occupied by two valleys, the eastern extending
from ten to thirty degrees west longitude, and traceable as
far as the equator, with an extreme depth of less than 13,000
feet.' The western valley reaches from the thirtieth to the
fiftieth degree of west longitude ; and the two are separated
by a ridge in thirty degrees west longitude, along which the
average depth is only 1600 fathoms, and which can be traced
northward to Iceland and southward to the Azores, so that
it is volcanic in character at both extremities. Its extreme
breadth is somewhat less than 500 miles, and the depth of
the water increases on both sides of it according to the dis-
tance from the axis.

F. GEOGRAPHY. 127

From Captain Osborne's researches in regard to deep-sea
beds generally, he is inclined to believe that there are no
rough ridges, abrupt chasms, nor bare rock, and that the sea
bottom at great depths is not affected by currents or streams,
even by those of the magnitude of the Gulf Stream, and that
it rather resembles the American prairies in general appear-
ance, and is every where covered by a kind of mud. 12.4,
December 15,133.

ANTIQUITIES OF THE BLACK SEA.

The region bordering upon the Black Sea has long been
known to be full of antiquarian treasures of the highest in-
terest, as evinced by the superb reports published from time
to time at the expense of the Russian government. A late
exploration of the peninsula of Toman, situated between the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, in continuation of previous
researches, has brought to light many striking objects, par-
ticularly of those belonging to a past period of Greek art,
and consisting of gold ornaments, sarcophagi, terra-cotta stat-
uettes, etc. 13 A, January 15, 1871, 91.

EXPEDITION OF THE PORCUPINE.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffries, in a communication to the British Asso-
ciation relative to the deep-sea exploring expedition of the
Porcupine in the Bay of Biscay and along the Atlantic coast
of Spain and Portugal in the year 1869, stated that at depths
of about a thousand fathoms many species of mollusca were
found in a living state, some of which had been previously
regarded as fossil and extinct, and all of them occurring in
the newer tertiaries of Sicily and Calabria, and he thought
that a record of the fact might lead to the further discovery
of the geological phenomena which had caused the fossiliza-
tion of so many species in that limited area. Some of them
inhabit northern, and even arctic seas. The author suggests
whether, in view of the wide distribution of many of the spe-
cies of the deep-sea forms of European mollusca, they did not
originate in the north, and spread southward in consequence
of the great arctic current. He also inquires whether, since
the pliocene division of the tertiary formation is found to
contain scarcely any extinct species, and, in fact, the percent-
age being likely to be reduced to nothing by further explor-

128 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

era, that artificial division should not disappear entirely, and
be merged in the quaternary, and the tertiaries be restricted
to the eocene, miocene, and oligocene.

In the course of a subsequent communication, Mr. Jeffries
described a living Pentacrinus obtained on the same cruise.
The base of this was free, although imbedded in the mud.
The animal is interesting, as being the first and only instance
of a European species of this genus, which forms so impor-
tant a link in the Q-eolooieal chain, and connects the mezoraic
period with the present epoch.

EXPLORATIONS OF THE POMMEEANIA IN THE BALTIC.

The German surveying ship Pommerania returned from her
cruise in the Baltic in August last, having been occupied dur-
ing the summer in making soundings of the sea bottom, in
dredging, and in noting the temperature of the water at dif-
ferent depths. The greatest depth between Gothland and
Windau was found to be 720 feet, being less than previously
estimated. At a depth of from GOO to 720 feet, at the latter
end of July, the temperature was only 33 to 36.5 Fahren-
heit. No marine plants were met with in this cold area, and
only a few annelids were dredged up. Life was very abun-
dant to* the depth of about 300 feet, while plants were sel-
dom found at a depth of more than 30 feet. 12 A, Septem-
ber 21, 1871, 417.

EXPLORATIONS OF GEANDIDIER IN MADAGASCAR.

Few geographical researches of modern times have been
more interesting than those carried on in Madagascar by
M. A. Grandidier, whether we consider our previous ignorance
of the region in question or the number of striking and im-
portant scientific novelties brought to light. AVe have al-
ready referred to the return of this gentleman from his third
expedition, the first having been commenced in 1865. On
this occasion he attempted to reach the heart of the island,
but in vain ; and in the following year he explored the south-
ern region, but did not reach the mountains. In 1869-70,
however, he traversed the entire length of the island three
times, from west to east, through its whole extent, making
various lateral excursions to interesting points, and visiting
the peak of the mountain Ankaararatre, the highest summit

F. GEOGRAPHY. 129

in Madagascar. According to the report just presented by
M. Grandidier to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, Madagas-
car comprises two distinct regions the northern, which is
mountainous, and that to the south and east, which is flat.
lie ascertained that there are five chains of mountains, which
have generally the same direction namely, from northeast
to southwest. These are separated by sandy and arid plains,
intersected by shallow ravines. After crossing the fourth
chain a region is reached of which the general level is from
1000 to 1200 metres in height, extending to the Indian Ocean,
a vast sea of mountains, with no level lands except a few
small valleys used for the cultivation of rice.

The eastern coast is intersected at almost every step with
rivers and torrents, and the northwestern provinces pour into
the sea a large number of important rivers. On the south-
ern and western regions, however, the case is quite different,
there being distances of fifty leagues without the smallest
brook. The reputation possessed by Madagascar for luxu-
riant vegetation and fertile soil, according to M. Grandidier,
is by no means merited, its provinces being neither rich nor
productive. The secondary plains are sterile, and the popula-
tion is confined to the immediate banks of the water-courses.
The entire mass of the granitic mountains situated to the
west of the eastern slope is naked and arid, and there is no
vegetation excepting here and there little bunches growing
in the ravines. In the opposite direction, however, there is
some degree of fertility ; and there is a line of forests extend-
ing from north to south, which connect with those of the
west, forming around the island a narrow girdle, including a
dry and desert region in its centre.

M. Grandidier made numerous astronomical, meteorologic-
al, and magnetical observations. He also closely studied the
ethnology of the inhabitants, having taken a great many
measurements upon the living body, and having collected
notes of the habits, language, and traditions of the people.
His natural history collections embrace over fifty new species
of vertebrates, together with numerous insects and plants.
Large numbers of alcoholic specimens were also gathered,
for the purpose of farther investigation into the anatomy and
structure of the entire animal. 3 B, xx., September 14, 1871,
603.

F 2

130 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

EXPLORATIONS IX SOUTH AFRICA.

Researches in South Africa by Mr. Bayne, prosecuted- for
the last two or three years, are considered as adding an im-
portant chapter to the history of the interior of that conti-
nent. The survey was extended over the gold-yielding coun-
try lying between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, the far-
thest point north reached being 17 30 / south latitude, the
distance from the Zambezi at one time being only 120 miles.
On this line Mr. Bayne met with the upper part of a number
of streams, flowing on the one side into the Zambesi, and on
the other into the Indian Ocean, the high lands forming the
water-shed of this part of Africa.

SCHWEINFURTIl's DISCOVERIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

Several foreign journals have much to say of the recent dis-
coveries made by Dr. Schweinfurth in Central Africa, as first
published in Petermann's Mittheilungen. The country ex-
amined by this gentleman lies to the northwest of the great
equatorial lakes, and his labors have tended to define the
limits of the Nile Valley in the direction of the equator, to
which he has approached more nearly than any other travel-
er. His letters contain very interesting accounts of adven-
tures among the Niam-Niams, a race of very peculiar and re-
markable character. After crossing the water-shed of the
Nile he met with another and totally different people, distin-
guished by the lighter color of their skin, and their blonde
and frizzled hair, as compared with the brown-colored skin
and long, silky hair of the Niam-Niams. They also possess
the unpleasant peculiarity of cannibalism to a greater degree
than is believed to exist among any other people on the face
of the globe at the present time. 13 A, January 15, 1871, 9G.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN EXPLORATIONS.

During the summer of 1870 two important expeditions
were engaged in prosecuting researches into the natural his-
tory and geology of the Rocky Mountains, and as these have
now returned to the East, we have been enabled to gather
some facts in regard to them which may be of interest.

An appropriation having been made by Congress for the
purpose of continuing geological explorations commenced

F. GEOGRAPHY. 131

several years ago by Dr. Hayden, under the direction of the
Interior Department, a party was fitted out by him at Chey-
enne, about the middle of July, which included a scientific
corps often persons, together with nine other employes. Pro-
vided with proper authority from the War Department to
obtain assistance in the way of supplies and transportation,
it left the point mentioned about the 6th of August, and as
the work of the previous year had been southward along the
eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains to Santa Fe, the pres-
ent expedition was arranged to move northward along the
same range, so as to obtain as extensive a section of the moun-
tains as possible.

Leaving Cheyenne as stated, the party proceeded along
the eastern base of the Laramie Range, by way of Chug Wa-
ter Creek, Laramie Peak, North Platte, Sweet Water, and
South Pass, to the Wind River Mountains; then down the
Big and Little Sandy creeks to Green River, and thence to
Fort Bridger. Here they remained for about twenty days,
making explorations in the vicinity. From Fort Bridger they
then went southward to Henry's Fork, and ascending its val-
ley to Green River and Brown's Hole, returned up the river
to the Union Pacific Railroad, and thence by way of Bridg-
ets Pass, Medicine Bow Mountain, and Laramie Plains, and
through the Laramie Hills, by way of Cheyenne Pass, back
to the original point of departure, which was reached about
the 1st of November. Extensive collections were made in
all branches of natural history and geology, and numerous
sections, photographic views, sketches, and notes taken, from
which to prepare the geological history of the country. It
is understood that Dr. Hayden's report is well advanced, and
will probably be printed in the course of a few months.

The expedition of Professor Marsh, although a private one,
and instituted especially in the interest of the museum of
Yale College, was also of great magnitude, and thoroughly
equipped for accomplishing its desired object. His party con-
sisted of twelve companions, principally students or recent
graduates of Yale, and left New Haven on the last of June,
proceeding directly to Fort M'Pherson, on the line of the
Union Pacific Railroad. From Fort M'Pherson, escorted by
a company of the Fifth Cavalry, under Lieutenant Riley, an
exploration was first made along the Loup Fork and Niobra-

132 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

ra, where rich collections rewarded their efforts. Returning
from this excursion, they proceeded early in August to Fort
D. A. Russell, near Cheyenne, and from that point made a
trip, accompanied by a detachment of the Fifth Cavalry, un-
der Captain Montgomery, into Northern Colorado, and thence
to Antelope Station, where extensive collections were made.
From this point they moved to the north branch of the Platte
River, near Chimney Rock, and again returned to Fort Rus-
sell by way of Horse Creek. Continuing their labors, they
started westward to Fort Bridger, with an escort from the
Thirteenth Infantry, and examined the eastern Uintah Moun-
tains, and the region along the Green and White rivers, and
other main tributaries of the Colorado, and after an absence
of about eight weeks returned to Fort Bridger.

Thence a portion of the party went to California, and visit-
ed the Yosemite Valley, while others proceeded to Denver in
November, and then to Fort Wallace, in Kansas, where their
explorations for the season were concluded. The amount of
material brought in by both these parties, the movements of
which overlapped each other to a certain extent, may be con-
sidered as the most important and valuable ever made in a
single season in the United States; and as they will be sub-
mitted to the most accomplished specialists in the United
States for investigation, we may look with confidence to the
final reports of the results as likely to clear up a great deal
that is at present perplexing and obscure in the geology and
natural history of the country.

EXPLORATIONS OF PROFESSOR POWELL.

It may be remembered by some of our readers that Con-
gress, at its last session, made an appropriation of $12,000 for
completing the survey of the Colorado of the West, under
Professor Powell. A proposition is now before that body
for an additional appropriation of $12,000 to enable the pro-
fessor to undertake and complete a topographical and geo-
logical survey of the valley of the Green River. As the
equipment now on hand, and used in the surveys of the Colo-
rado, will answer for the work on the Green River, and as
this last-mentioned valley must be traversed before the labors
on the Colorado can be finished, it is urged that the work can
be accomplished at a much less cost than that of the original

F. GEOGRAPHY. 133

undertaking. The appropriation is commended by the Sec-
retary of the Interior to the favorable consideration of Con-
gress.

The professor has returned from the West for the purpose
of building boats to be used in the lateral canons of the Colo-
rado. He has been quite successful in finding passes into the
Grand Canon by which supplies can be taken to the river.
Thus he will be able to continue his work to completion even
though he should meet with a loss of rations at any time, as
he did on his first trip through the canons, for now he can get
fresh supplies through these passes. After he had completed
the exploration of these canon passes he crossed Northern
Arizona to New Mexico, and on the way visited the " Seven
Ancient Cities," and spent several weeks with their interest-
ing people, making vocabularies of their language, collecting
their implements, utensils, etc., and studying their mytholo-
gy, religion, habits, customs, etc.

The professor found that their religion was elaborately sys-
tematized, and that they used sacred paintings, or picture-
writing, in their worship. His discoveries among this rem-
nant of a once great nation will be of interest to those who
have made a study of the aboriginal races of the continent.

In March or April he will rejoin his party left in the field,
shipping his boats by the Pacific Railroad.

EXPLORATION OF PROFESSOR COPE.

Among the explorations of the past season in the interest
of natural history, one of the most important and productive
in its results was that of Professor E.D. Cope, of Philadelphia,
well known for his indefatigable researches in regard to the
recent and fossil vertebrates of America. The field of his la-
bors was mainly in the valley of the Smoky Hill Fork of the
Republican River, in Kansas, where, under the protection of
an escort of seventy-five infantry, commanded by Captain
Butler, and detailed by order of General Pope, he spent sev-
enteen days in the diligent prosecution of his labors. As is
well known to American palaeontologists, this region is one
of the richest in the world in fossil remains of reptiles and
fishes. Of these a large number of specimens Were obtained
by Professor Cope, many of extraordinary magnitude, and
some of them entirely new to science. More or less complete

134 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

scries were obtained of the bones of animals previously known
only by a few fragments, thus supplying much better infor-
mation as to their affinities and position in the system. Near-
ly the entire skeleton of a large fish, provided with teeth of
immense power, was exhumed. This animal is to bear the
name oiPortheus molossus / and its remains occurred in such
abundance as to demonstrate that it must have been a char-
acteristic and very formidable inhabitant of the cretaceous
seas.

Another discovery was that of a reptilian form related to
or intermediate between the tortoises and serpents. The ribs
of this animal were long and attenuated, but, instead of be-
ing united in the carapace, as in the tortoise, remained sepa-
rate, possibly united by membrane. If built at all on the
chelonian pattern, the expanse would have been at least twen-
ty feet. This is to be called Protostega gigas.

During his explorations in 1 870 Professor Marsh ascertained
the existence of a species of pterodactyl, or flying lizard, in
the cretaceous strata of the West, and additional specimens
of the same or another species were found by Professor Cope
during the expedition just referred to. The most gigantic
reptiles met with by him this year were species of Liodon,
Polycotylus, and PJlasmosaurus. Of these, Liodon was found
most abundantly, and one specimen will probably prove to
be the largest of all known reptiles. Elasmosaurus had the
most massive body, and must have presented an extraordi-
nary apj)earance, in consequence of the great length of its
neck.

HEAD WATERS OF THE YELLOWSTONE.

Por many years past the terra incognita of the United
States has been the region forming the head waters of the
Yellowstone River, to the north of the Wind River Moun-
tains. Traditions have prevailed for a long time of the ex-
istence there of a large lake, and of boiling springs and spout-
ing fountains,, of terrific waterfalls, and other wonderful works
of nature. Trappers have looked into the mysterious region
from tlie summits of the neighboring mountains, but did not
dare any nearer approach, owing to the physical obstacles
and the fear of Indians. Colonel Raynolds, in his last ex-
pedition into the Upper Missouri region, in which he was ac-

F. GEOGRAPHY. 135

companied by Dr. Hayden as geologist, aimed to reach the lo-
cality referred to, but was prevented by deep snows and oth-
er impediments. We now learn from a Montano journal that
a party of bold explorers from Helena, fourteen in number, un-
der the lead of General H. DAVashburne, have at last solved
the interesting problem, having visited the country, and re-
turned, after an absence of six weeks, with a report of their
discoveries. They left on the 1 7th of August, and, proceeding
to Fort Ellis, were there joined by an escort of five soldiers.
Leaving this fort on the 22d of the month, they continued
their route through Bozeman's Pass, and after a short time
reached the fall of the Yellowstone. Up this stream they
advanced for several days, until they arrived at the Great
Fall on Cascade Creek. This was found to be upward of
350 feet in height, and of great magnificence, its swift waters
flowing through a canon in some places 2000 feet in depth.

Still farther up the river they came to a region abounding
in hot sulphur and mud springs, the heated vapors steaming
forth perpetually through the openings in the soil.

Leaving the falls, and proceeding up the river, they met
with another remarkable series of springs and mud volcanoes.
On one hill they found a large spring, filled with boiling wa-
ter, gushing up in a basin formed of pure, solid brimstone.
Around this were other springs of different characters, while
sulphur occurred in inexhaustible abundance. A series of
springs was seen in which the mud was constantly bubbling
up in a kind of thick mush, one of them forming a volcano,
from which the mud was ejected to a great height.

The most remarkable discovery of the party, however, was
that of a valley abounding in geysers of enormous dimen-
sions, the largest throwing a solid column of water from 150
to 250 feet in height. There were a dozen of large size, while
the smaller ones were almost innumerable. As usual in these
hot springs, the borders were constituted by a hardened de-
posit from the water of a silicious character and of great
beauty, looking as if carved out by the art of the sculptor.

In the course of the expedition, a lake of steaming hot wa-
ter was found 450 yards in diameter, resting in a basin which
had been built up by its own overflow to a height of 50 feet.
The ultimate destination of the party namely, the Yellow-
stone Lake was ascertained to be a boclv of water about 22

136 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

miles in length and 15 miles in width, and at a level above
the sea (as shown by the barometer) of about 8000 feet.

The length of time which the party was able to spend in
this region of wonders was too limited to determine whether
still greater marvels might not exist in the neighborhood,
and we presume it will not be long before a thorough explo-
ration of the whole region will be made, and all its hidden
curiosities brought to light. Helena Herald, Sept. 29, 1871.

HEAD WATERS OF THE YELLOWSTONE AGAIN.

In the preceding article we give an account of explorations
in the region about the head waters of the Yellowstone in
1870, and we have now to record the renewal of this enter-
prise, on a much larger scale, by Dr. Hayden, in 1871. At
the head of a large party, this eminent geologist took the
field early in the summer, and after examining an interme-
diate portion of the Rocky Mountain region, started for Yel-
lowstone Lake by way of Fort Ellis and Botteler's Ranch.

After establishing a depot of supplies on the Yellowstone
River, about 140 miles below the lake, the party ascended the
river, and reached the lake on the 26th of July, where they
made a new camp. They then began at once to survey the
lake with the most approved apparatus, by the aid of a boat
taken along for the purpose, and expected to be able to ascer-
tain the exact contour as well as the principal depths. They
had already found several places in the lake where the depth
reached 300 feet, especially along the line of a certain chan-
nel-way, and they confidently expected to find soundings of
at least 500 feet.

They explored one of the islands in the lake, which they
called Stevenson's Island, and found it to contain about 1500
acres, densely wooded, and with thick and almost impene-
trable underbrush, consisting largely of gooseberry and cur-
rant bushes, loaded down with ripe fruit. On the threshold
only of the wonderful natural phenomena in the way of gey-
sers, boiling springs, etc., described by Lieutenant Doane and
Governor Langford, they were satisfied that the description
fell far short of the reality, which they, indeed, despaired of
being able to portray, even with the aid of photographic
views and sketches.

One of these geysers once in 32 hours threw up a column

F. GEOGKAPIIY. 137

of water about 8 feet in diameter to a height of over 200
feet. Hundreds were met with having columns of from 10
to 50 feet high, some playing all the time, and others only at
intervals. The hottest springs were found to vary in tem-
perature from 188 to 198; the boiling point at that altitude
amounting to about 195. Most of the springs were ascer-
tained to be divisible into two principal classes, one class con-
taining silica, sulphur, and iron, and the other silica and iron
only.

The elevation of the lake was determined to be about 8500
feet ; the altitude of the surrounding peaks being, of course,
very much greater. An abundance of trout was found in the
waters, of excellent flavor, although much infected with in-
testinal worms. Game was scarce immediately around the
lake, but at a short distance it was said to be very abundant.
In addition to the topographical and geological collections,
others were being made in all branches of natural history, for
a full account of which, as well as a description of the phe-
nomena in general, we shall look with interest to the forth-
coming report of the expedition. Letter.

COMPARATIVE HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS ON THE PACIFIC COAST.

An animated discussion is at present being carried on by
the newspapers on the Pacific coast as to which state pos-
sesses the highest mountains ; Mount Shasta, in California,
with an altitude of 14,440 feet, as determined by Mr. Clar-
ence King, finding it necessary, according to the Olympia
papers, to yield the pre-eminence to Mount Rainier, in Wash-
ington Territory, which Professor Davidson, of the Coast Sur-
vey, decides to be 14,444 feet high, or four feet more than the
other.

SUCCESSFUL ASCENT OF MOUNT WniTNEY BY MR. KING.

Some of our readers are familiar with a series of thrilling
articles now in the course of publication by Mr. Clarence
King, entitled " Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada," and
have doubtless sympathized with him in his efforts to deter-
mine the altitude and physical character of the loftiest peaks
of the West.

The scene of his adventures is laid in that portion of the
Sierra Nevada near the sources of the Kern and King rivers,

138 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

in the southern part of the state, where some hundreds of
square miles have a general elevation of 8000 feet, with nu-
merous peaks rising to a height of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet.
The loftiest summit in the Sierras is that named Mount Whit-
ney, by Mr. King, in honor of Professor J. D. Whitney, the
state geologist of California, and almost the only one the
summit of which was not reached in the survey of the state.
Determined, however, not to be baffled by this single peak,
Mr. King took the opportunity of his renewed research in the
West during the present summer to make a final essay, and
with triumphant success, as we learn from a late number of
the San Francisco Bulletin.

On the present occasion he started for Mount Whitney from
the eastern or Nevada side, by Owen's Lake, and reached the
summit on the 22d of June. The details of his adventures
and observations have not yet been announced, although they
may soon be looked for. It is not likely, however, that the
altitude will be found to be much less than 15,000 feet, and
may even slightly exceed this.

RAYMOND'S REPORT ON THE YUKON.

During the summer of 1869, Captain Charles W. Raymond,
United States engineers, was ordered by Major General Hal-
leck to visit the Yukon River, with the special object of map-
ping out its course, and of determining the latitude and lon-
gitude of Fort Yukon, a post for many years in the occupa-
tion of the Hudson Bay Company, but which was believed to
be within the new territory of Alaska. In pursuance of this
order he visited that region, accompanied by Mr. John J. Ma-
jor, well known as a topographer and astronomer, and spent
a number of months in the work. Owing to having been de-
tailed to other duty shortly after his return, Captain Ray-
mond was unable to complete the report of his exploration
until quite lately. This has, however, been recently sent in
to Congress, and has just appeared from the press of the pub-
lic printer. It consists of a general introduction, summing
up the progress of discovery in Northern Alaska, which is
followed by an account of the expedition, the resources of the
country traversed, and a detail of the physical observations.
The longitude of the fort was determined to be 145 17' 47",
and its latitude 06 33' 47", or just over the line of the arctic

F. GEOGRAPHY. 139

circle. Magnetic observations were made on a small scale,
and in a table we find a statement of the absolute magnetic
declination, the absolute inclination and horizontal intensity,
and the total intensity at the fort.

WHITEAVES'S EXPLORATION OF THE ST. LAWRENCE.

Among other scientific explorations referred to in the " Sci-
entific Intelligence," as promised during the past summer, was
one about to be undertaken in the* way of deep-sea dredging
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, in the
interest of the Natural History Society of Montreal. We
find in a late number of Nature a report of his labors from
this gentleman, from which it seems that the investigation
lasted for a period of five weeks, the first three of which were
spent on the schooner La Canaclienne, and the remaining two
on the Stella Maris. The area examined included an entire
circuit round the island of Anticosti, and extended from Point
des Monts (on the north shore of the St. Lawrence) to a spot
about half way between the east end of Anticosti and the
Bird Rocks. As these investigations were almost necessari-
ly subordinate to the special duties on which the schooners
were engaged, in several cases the same ground was gone
over twice.

The bottom, at great depths, was found to consist of a
tough, clayey mud, with occasional large stones on the sur-
face. Temperature observations do not seem to have been
made with very precise instruments, but, as far as ascertained,
the mud at this depth was about 37 to 38 F. In the deep-
est part of the river, on the south shore, the temperature was
a little higher. Sand dredged on the north shore in 25 fath-
oms also made the mercury sink to 37 or 38. The princi-
pal explorations were prosecuted in a depth of from 250 to
300 fathoms. The maximum sounding observed by the gov-
ernment surveying parties, however, west of Newfoundland,
is 313 fathoms.

Numerous species of marine invertebrates were obtained,
of which twenty-four species of mollusca occurred at depths
of from 90 to 200 fathoms. Nearly all of these are arctic
forms, and eleven of them are new to the continent of Amer-
ica. Three species of brachiopods were found. The close
similarity of the deep-sea fauna of the Gulf of St. Lawrence

140 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

to that of the quaternary deposits of Norway was thought
to he quite noticeable; hut many of the characteristic North
European invertebrates were not met with. This may, per-
haps, have been owing to the comparatively limited extent
of the investigations. It was expected that quite a resem-
blanee would he found to exist between the recent fauna of
the deeper parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and that of the
post-pliocene deposits of Canada. This, however, was not
very striking, although scfmewhat indicated. 12 A 9 Novem-
ber 2,1871, 8.

EXPLORATIONS IX VINEYARD SOUND.

Professor Verrill has lately given, in the Journal of Science,
an account of the researches in marine zoology prosecuted by
him during the past summer at Wood's Hole, Massachusetts,
in connection with investigations of Professor Baird respect-
ing the food fishes of the coast of the United States ; and in
this he calls the attention of geologists to some of the more
important features of these examinations, promising a fuller
account hereafter. One of these results consisted in ascer-
taining that, while the shores and shallow waters of the bays
and sounds, as far as Cape Cod, are occupied chiefly by south-
ern forms belonging to the Virginian fauna, the deeper chan-
nels and central parts of Long Island Sound, as far as Ston-
ington, Connecticut, are inhabited almost exclusively by north-
ern forms, or an extension of the Acadian fauna. Both the
temperature observations at the surface and the deep-sea
dredgings prove that there must be an offshoot of the arctic
current settling into the middle of Vineyard Sound. Quite
a number of interesting ascidians, both simple and compound,
were met with by Professor Verrill, several of them entirely
new to science. Several new sponges were collected, and
also a large number of crustaceans and mollusks previously
unrecorded in that region. We would refer our readers to
Professor Verrill's article in the November number of the
American Journal of Science for these interesting facts. 4
I), November, 1871, 357.

EXPLORATION OF THE GREAT LAKES.

We have already referred occasionally to investigations
prosecuted during the past summer, on the great lakes, into

F. GEOGRAPHY. 141

the fauna and physical condition of the deeper waters ; and
we find in the last number- of Silliman's Journal a more de-
tailed account of that portion of the work carried on in Lake
Superior, upon the United States steamer Search, under the
direction of General Comstock, of the Lake Survey, as report-
ed by Mr. Sidney J. Smith, the zoologist of the expedition.

The deepest water met with was 169 fathoms, the bottom
being there covered, as in all the deeper portions of the lake,
with a uniform deposit of clay or clay mud ; and not the
slightest trace of saline matter was detected in the water in
any part of the lake. The temperature, every where below
thirty or forty fathoms, varied very little from 39 Fahr., al-
though, in August, it varied at the surface from 50 to 55.
The fauna at the bottom was found to correspond to these
physical conditions. In the shallow waters the species vary
down to thirty or forty fathoms, after which the deep-water
fauna begins, and the species appear to be uniformly distrib-
uted. The list of species is meagre, and the deep-water re-
gion is characterized rather by the absence of many of the
shore species than by the presence of any peculiar class. The
same crustaceans and marine forms met with in 1870 in Lake
Michigan were also found here abundantly, together with the
same species of Pisidium; and some of the crustaceans have
so far been undistinguishable from those found in Lake Wet-
ter, in Sweden. The detailed account, of which that in the
Journal of Science is an abstract, appears in the report of the
chief engineer of the army to the Secretary of War, just pre-
sented to Congress. 4 D, November, 1871, 373.

EXPLOKATIOXS IX THE WEST INDIES.

In the search for new regions of exploration and discov-
ery, it is not a little surprising to be assured that, taking the
West Indies as a group, we know almost as little of their
natural history as we do of that of Central Africa, especially'
of the islands east and south of the Greater Antilles. Thanks
to the labors of Dr. Gundlach and Professor Poey in Cuba, of
Dr. Bryant in the Bahamas, of Mr. March and Mr. Gosse in
Jamaica, of Mr. A. E. Younglove in Hayti, of Dr. Bryant, Mr.
Swift, and Mr. Latimer in Porto Rico, of Mr. Swift in St. Thom-
as, of Mr. Galody in Antigua, of Mr. Julien in Sombrero, and
of Mr. Newton in Santa Cruz, we have a fair knowledge of

142 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

the birds of the islands mentioned; but of Anguilla, St. Mar-
tin, Barbuda, Nevis, Montserrat, and Grenada, we know noth-
ing ; and of St. Bartholomew, St. John, Saba, and Barbadoes
next to nothing. Dominica, Martinique, and Guadaloupe
have been more or less explored by English and French natu-
ralists, although with no very complete result. We are glad
to see that the Zoological Society of London is printing a
paper by Dr. Sclater upon a collection of the birds of Santa
Lucia sent to the Society by Mr. De Vceux, in which twenty-
five species are enumerated, and among them three entirely
peculiar to the island, one of them, a species of oriole, being
hitherto undescribed. To such of our readers as have a spir-
it of enterprise, and are desirous of visiting a region which is
sure to reward them with rich and undescribed treasures in
natural history, we earnestly recommend the smaller West
India Islands, to which a trip can be made, especially in the
winter season, with little or no risk to life or health, and with
ample promise of satisfactory results.

Williams' college expedition, 1870-71.

We find in the American Journal of Science for July a
more detailed statement of the result of the Williams' College
expedition than has heretofore been published. This consist-
ed of five members of the present senior class, under the lead-
ership of Mr, H. M. Myers, who gained much experience in
the line of exploration in connection with the Venezuelan
branch of Professor Orton's expedition of some years back.
We have already referred to the movements of this party,
and it is only necessary to add that large numbers of birds
were obtained by the expedition at Comayagna, as well as
two statues, exhumed at Chorozal, south of Belize. The col-
lections made by the party will go to enrich the Williams'
College Lyceum of Natural History, and will add much to its
already extensive treasures. 4 Z>,7i^y,187l,67.

explorations of dr. habel.

After a seven years' tour of exploration in South America,
Dr. A. Habel, a former resident of Hastings-on-the-Hudson,
has returned to New York, where he is assiduously engaged
in preparing the results of his labors for the press. Among
the regions traversed by this gentleman may be mentioned

F. GEOGKAPHY. 143

the greater part of Central America, the.Corclilleras of the An-
des in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, and finally the Chincha
Islands and the Galapagos. During this whole period Dr.
Habel was diligently, occupied in gathering information in
regard to the natural and physical history of the countries
mentioned, especially in the departments of ethnology, mete-
orology, and zoology. He has already made some communi-
cations on the subject of his travels to the Academy of Sci-
ences at Paris, and other learned bodies, and we look forward
to his detailed report with anticipations of much interest.
The guano deposits of the Chinchas were thoroughly explored
by the doctor, who found them to be of a much more compli-
cated structure than has hitherto been supposed.

INDIAN RACES OF THE ISTHMUS OF DARIEN.

Much interest was excited in Bogota by the arrival there
of a delegation of certain chiefs of the Tule tribes of Indians
of the Isthmus of Darien, for* the purpose of presenting com-
plaints to the federal authorities respecting impositions ex-
ercised to their prejudice by various foreign vessels touching
at their ports, as obliging them, under threats of violence, to
sell their productions at prices fixed by the buyers, collect-
ing the vegetable growths of their forests without the con-
sent of the owners, maltreating their families, etc. Among
the parties referred to by the Indians were various members
of the United States surveying expeditions. These people, it
is said, are well advanced in the arts of civilization, possess-
ing very comfortable residences, and raising a considerable va-
riety of vegetable productions. Their capital is called Tituo,
and their country is situated between the River Arquia on
the east, and the Gulf of San Bias on the west, extending over
about 172 miles on the coast. The total population, is esti-
mated at 7200, occupying about 1200 houses, arranged in 36
villages. Panama Star and Herald.

REPORT ON THE DARIEN CANAL.

In the New York Herald we find a report of Captain Self-
ridge, of the Darien Surveying Expedition, addressed to the
President of Colombia, which presents the same conclusions
in regard to the proposed canal as those already communi-
cated by the Herald reporter accompanying the expedition,

H4 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

and published in that paper. President Salgar is informed
by Captain Selfridge that the expedition, composed of two
vessels of the United States navy, left New York in January,
1870, and arrived in the Bay of Caledonia in the month of
February following, a vessel of the Pacific squadron having
been sent to co-operate on the Pacific coast.

From the port of Caledonia and from the port of Sarsardi
observations were made on two lines, which terminated on
the coast of the Pacific in the confluences of the rivers Saba-
na and Lara. Both these, however, were found to be imprac-
ticable for a ship canal, the Cordilleras being at no point less
than 1000 feet in altitude, while the breadth of the mountain
rendered the construction of tunnels impossible, even if there
had been enough water to furnish the necessary lockage.

The expedition then sailed for the Bay of San Bias in the
latter part of April, 1870, and surveyed a route which, across
the narrowest part of the isthmus, measured only twenty-six
miles, from the Atlantic to the navigable river Bayamo. The
results were equally unfavorable along this line, the lowest
level of the Cordilleras bein<? found to be 1134 feet, with
heights of 800 feet on either side ; and the construction of a
canal by this route was considered even more impracticable
than by those just referred to.

In consequence of the approach of the rainy season the ex-
pedition ceased its labors, and sailed for New York on the
10th of June, 1870.

The surveys were again resumed on the part of the United
States in December, and reached the mouth of the Atrato
River on the 30th of the same month. The explorations of
1871 were intended to embrace routes which follow certain
tributaries of the Atrato, as well as a line said to have been
discovered by M. De Puydt, a Frenchman, who maintained
that at no point w r as there an elevation of more than about
250 feet. Careful exploration, however, with an exact mer-
curial barometer, showed an altitude of 750 feet in the valley
of Tuncla before reaching the Cordilleras. The expedition
then directed its principal efforts to the exploration of a line
beginning at the Atrato, and following the valley of the Par-
anchita (a tributary of the Cacarica), crossing the Cordillera
of Cue, down stream, and from that point to Penogama, and
thence to a navigable point. The total length proved to be

F. GEOGRAPHY. !4 5

fifty-five miles, the route being generally known as that of
Tuyra.

Another line was surveyed, extending from the Bay of
Cupica, in the Pacific, and following the valley of the Napipi
to its mouth. A third route, by way of the River Bojaya,
was heard of, but too late to make any examination ; and it
was thought that the results of an inquiry there would not
Jbe any more satisfactory, at least, than the route by the Na-
pipi, both rivers running very near each other.

Farther prosecution of the work during the past season
was impracticable on account of the approach of the rainy
season and the general exhaustion of the parties, but data
enough were obtained, it is thought, to give a definite con-
clusion in regard to the subject of inquiry. Both the Tuyra
and Napipi routes are believed by Captain Selfridge to be
practicable, although a canal along the former would proba-
bly cost $140,000,000, and one along the latter $110,000,000.
Neither is quite satisfactory, however, and it is a question
whether any attempt will be made to realize the much-talk-
ed-of project on the Isthmus of Darien.

In the progress of the expedition a vast amount of light
was thrown upon the general geography and physical char-
acter of the country, the natural history being illustrated by
collections in the departments of botany and zoology. Cap-
tain Selfridge concludes his report by reminding the govern-
ment of Colombia that the route by Nicaragua will be a for-
midable rival to any other more southern one, and that, un-
less very favorable conditions are offered, it is more than like-
ly that the canal will ultimately be built through Nicaragua.
JVeio York Herald, September 1, 1871.

EXPLORATION OF THE PERENE RIVER.

Within the past few years the government authorities of
Peru have done a great deal toward exploring the less-known
portions of that country, especially those on the eastern slope
of the Andes, and the report of a late expedition has just
reached us. The object of the examination in question was
to determine the navigability of the River Perene, and the
character of the adjacent country. This river, which is a
branch of the Ucayale, or, rather, of the Apurimac, rises near
the town of Tarma, in the department of Junin, and flows

G

146 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

through the country of the Chuchumayo Indians, a wild and
but little. known tribe. According to the report of the chief
of the expedition, dated October 26, the river was found to be
completely unobstructed, and navigable to within a distance
of only fifty-eight leagues from Lima, so that water commu-
nication with the Atlantic becomes practicable by that route
in half the time now required to pass round Cape Horn. The
river is one hundred yards wide, and from three to five fath-
oms in depth, up to a point where a convenient route across
the Andes from Lima would strike it.

In the course of the expedition an Indian camp was met
with, in which was a house twenty yards long, sixteen yards
w T ide, and fifteen yards high. In this they found a sort of
furnace for smelting iron, which was of a square form, about
two yards high, and one and three quarter yards each way,
constructed of bricks half a yard long. The fire was furnish-
ed with two double bellows, the fuel used being coal and
w r ood, mixed w T ith pounded ore. A considerable quantity of
cast-iron w r as found, and a number of articles of unusual ex-
cellence of construction. None of the Indians themselves
were met with. Panama Star and Herald, Dec. 17, 1870.

EXPLORATION OF PEOFESSOE HAETT.

Our readers have been kept advised, through the papers,
of the movements of Professor Hartt's third visit to Brazil
instituted, in part, for the purpose of enriching the cabinet of
Cornell University and have been informed of its safe return
on the 2 2d of December last. We learn that, besides making
extensive collections in all departments of natural science,
the exploration has brought to light several new features in
regard to the geology and physical geography of the valley.
The great Amazonian forest, according to Mr.Hartt, does not
cover the whole district from the Andes to the Atlantic, and
the mountains of Guiana on the north to the plateaus of Mi-
nas Geraes on the south, but consists of a comparatively nar-
row fringe overgrowing the lowlands, or flats, bordering the
banks of the river and its affluents, while the intervening re-
gion is composed of grass-covered campos almost impercep-
tibly swelling from the alluvial intervals, dotted here and
there by groups of palms muriti and carara presenting
a singular feature in the distribution of Amazonian forests,

F. GEOGRAPHY. 147

usually composed of numberless varieties within a limited
area.

Below the falls of the Tapajoz Mr. Hartt discovered car-
boniferous rock, and made a collection of a large number of
species of marine fossils from this formation. The most in-
teresting physical feature of the Valley of the Amazon is the
elevated range of Erere, where the professor and his party
spent nearly a month making detailed surveys. The sierra
is composed of ancient rocks quite highly inclined, much dis-
turbed, while the plains at the northern base consist of hori-
zontal strata containing lower palaeozoic fossils, trilobites, etc.
The cliffs of Erere are covered with Indian paintings, nearly
all of which were carefully copied or photographed, and pre-
sented many interesting analogies to the inscriptions on the
Indian pottery found at Marajo, near the mouth of the river.
A special study of the Tupi language enabled Mr. Hartt to
collect many interesting facts regarding the primitive deni-
zens of the Amazon, their customs, habits, and peculiar meth-
od of teaching by symbolic fable.

In making a geological section of some fifty miles of the
country near Santarem, they found a thick bed of recent Am-
azonian shells at a height of some fifty feet above the high-
est present level of the river, showing that in comparatively
recent times the waters covered a much greater surface at a
higher level.

CRUISE OF SCHOOL-SHIP MERCURY.

The Department of Public Charities and Correction in
New York has just published a report of the cruise of the
school-ship Mercury in the tropical Atlantic, in 1870-71, un-
der the command of Captain Giraud. This vessel, like the
Massachusetts school-ship, is intended to give practical train-
ing in seamanship to a class of vagabond boys, of whom no
other disposition could be made ; and as this was the first
experiment in New York, the result was looked for with a
great deal of interest. This was entirely satisfactory, as, out
of a crew of 258 boys, over 100 were, in the opinion of the
captain, capable, on the return of the ship, of discharging the
duties of ordinary seamen. The vessel in question sailed from
Hart's Island on the 20th of December, 1870, and after stop-
ping at the Madeira and Canary Islands, arrived at Sierra

148 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Leone on the 14th of February. Leaving on the 21st of Feb-
ruary, the vessel proceeded in a straight line to the island of
Harbadoes, a distance of about 2800 miles, and thence returned
to New York.

What especially concerns us in the present instance, how-
ever, is the fact that the voyage was utilized in the interest
of science by a series of deep-sea soundings and dredgings,
prosecuted between Sierra Leone and Barbadoes, these rang-
ing in depth from 500 to 3100 fathoms, and embracing in the
results specimens of the sea bottom, as also temperatures at
various depths. The results of the voyage in this respect
have been ably discussed by Professor Henry Draper, of the
New York University, and a report published by the Depart-
ment of Public Charities and Corrections.

As a general conclusion, he informs us that there exists, all
over the bottom of the tropical Atlantic and the Caribbean
Sea, a stratum of cold water, the temperature of which is be-
low 50 Fahr. The general observations, in Professor Dra-
per's opinion, confirm the theory of Dr. Carpenter in regard
to the existence of a general movement of the lower water
of the Atlantic toward the equator, and a corresponding flow
of the surface water toward the pole.

GREAT WATERFALL IX DEMERARA.

The Kaieteur Fall, in Demerara, is to be added to the list of
remarkable waterfalls, as its height is asserted to be greater
than that of any other known. The perpendicular descent,
according to careful observation, amounts to 750 feet, with a
width during the rainy season of 100 yards. The water, aft-
er passing over the edge, preserves its consistency for only a
short distance in the central portion, every where else being
only a sheet of fine foam or spray, in appearance very much
like snow. One interesting feature connected with this fall
is the fact that the cavern behind it is the home of thousands
of swallows, which issue from it in the morning and return in
large flocks at night. The precise species to which these
swallows belong is not indicated, and it is quite possible that
they are actually swifts, and, therefore, belong to a very, dif-
ferent family. 12 A, December 8, 1870, 108.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 149

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATES OF AUSTRALIA.

According to Dr. Krefft, the well-known curator of the
Australian Museum at Sydney, the vertebrate fauna of Aus-
tralia, recent and fossil, foots up 133 mammals, 670 birds, 150
reptiles, 42 batrachians, and 440 fishes, making a total of
nearly 1500 species. Of the mammals, 110 are marsupials,
and 30 are rodents. Of parrots, 60 species are enumerated,
no woodpeckers, humming-birds, or trogons being met with.
Reptiles are abundant, embracing one species of crocodile,
which often attain a length of 30 feet. Of 80 known species
of serpents only 5 are poisonous, and those not so dangerous
as the common English viper, and much less so than the
American rattlesnake or coj)per-head. 13 A, 1871, July 15,
357.

FAUNAL PECULIARITIES OF THE AZORES.

Of late years much attention has been directed by natural-
ists to the peculiarities of the fauna of islands, and the study
of their native animals has tended to throw great light upon
the question as to the length of time that must have elapsed
since such islands were either lifted up from the bed of the
sea or cut off from connection with the main. We have giv-
en in previous pages some notices of the fauna of Madeira
and its special peculiarities, and in the recent work of Mr.
Frederick Godman upon the natural history of the Azores
we have a similar problem elaborated. The most striking
feature, as developed by Mr. Godman's book, is the great
similarity between the productions of the islands and those
of Europe, although separated by an interval of a thousand
miles and a channel of 15,000 feet in depth. Thus 80 to 90
per cent, of the birds, the butterflies, the beetles, and the
plants are the same as the European forms, while only 1 or 2
per cent, are American. This appears anomalous at first, in
view of the fact that the currents of both water and air are
from the west a fact which should produce a preponderance
of western or American forms. Great Britain, and especially

150 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Ireland, are every year visited by numbers of American birds,
brought by the westerly winds, no less than 60 or *70 species
having already been recorded ; while, as far as we can learn,
not one bird has ever been carried from Europe, in the oppo-
site direction, to America, there being good reason to believe
that the European stragglers, picked up from time to time in
our country, have reached us by way of Greenland.

Mr. Godman's explanation of this anomaly is to the effect
that the Azores are in the region of storms from all points of
the compass, and that every year these storms bring birds
from Europe, and probably carry away an occasional Ameri-
can straggler. The enormous preponderance of species un-
distinguishable from those now inhabiting the Continent, and
the entire absence of native mammalia and reptiles, according
to our author, are conclusive proof that the fauna and flora
are not due to a former continental extension connecting the
islands with Europe.

AYe have already referred to the peculiarity of the Madei-
ran beetle fauna in the existence of numerous wingless gene-
ra, and a similar condition appears to prevail in the Azores,
some of these insects being undistinguishable, even as species,
from their European allies, excepting in this characteristic.
A single species of beetle belongs to a genus peculiar to Mad-
agascar, and a single plant alone represents Africa in the
Azores, and it is suggested that both the beetle and plant
may have been carried thither by means of a floating log,
brought from the regions indicated. Attention is called bv
Mr. Godman to the difference between the Azores and the
Galapagos, where, at only half the distance from South Amer-
ica, the fauna is almost entirely peculiar. This is explained
by the suggestion that these latter islands are in a region of
calms instead of storms, and that the introductions have been,
therefore, of much rarer occurrence, and, when once establish-
ed in their isolation, have been more readily modified by ex-
ternal conditions. 13 A, May 15, 266.

IiLYTII OX ZOOLOGICAL PROVINCES.

Mr. Edward Blyth, a well-known naturalist of England,
has published in Nature a sketch of a new division of the
earth into zoological regions, differing somewhat from that of
Dr. Sclater and other writers upon this subject. The num-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 151

ber of regions proposed by him is seven, the first being called
the Boreal Region, divisible, first, into the portion within the
arctic circle, including Greenland ; second, North America ;
third, Central America, with the Antilles ; fourth, the chain
of the Andes, with Chile, Patagonia, and the archipelagos to
the southward ; fifth, Europe and Asia south of the arctic
circle and north of the Pyrenees and to the Western Hima-
layas, thus extending from the British Islands to Northern
Japan ; sixth, the country adjacent to the Mediterranean, in-
cluding Africa north of the Atlas, and extending eastward to
Middle China and Southern Japan ; seventh, Mongolia, Thi-
bet, and Chinese Tartary.

The second, or the Columbian Region, including South
America minus the portions already referred to, is divided,
first, into the forest countries east of the Andes ; second, the
pampas territory ; third, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and the Galapa-
gos.

The third, or the Ethiopian Region, includes Africa south
of the Atlas and of Egypt. This is divided into the countries
extending from Senegal to Nubia and Arabia, and including
that around the head of the Persian Gulf, etc., as well as the
depression of the Dead Sea and the Valley of the Jordan ;
second, Negroland ; third, Southern Africa ; fourth, Hindos-
tan proper, Deccan, and the country to the northern half of
Ceylon.

The fourth, or Lemurian Region, includes Madagascar, the
Mascarene Islands, Seychelles, etc.

The fifth is the Australian Region, embracing the Indo-
Chinese peninsula, the southern watershed of the Himalayas,
Lower Bengal, the Philippine Islands, Hainan, Formosa, etc.
This includes five subdivisions, which, perhaps, it is not nec-
essary to enumerate in detail.

The sixth, or Melanesian Region, embraces, first, Australia
minus Yorke Peninsula, part of Queensland, and Tasmania ;
second, the islands of Papua, New Britain, and New Ireland,
Ceram, and the Moluccas, as also Yorke Peninsula and the
eastern half of Queensland, or the main land of Australia ;
third, the islands of Celebes, Lombok, Timor, etc. ; and, fourth,
the antarctic region, including Ker^uelen Land.

The seventh, or Polynesian Region, embraces, first, New
Zealand and adjacent islands ; and, second, Polynesia, com-

152 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

prehending the archipelagos of the Pacific, with the exception
of those belonging to the Columbian Region. 12 A, March
30, 428.

PECULIARITIES OF NEW ZEALAND ZOOLOGY.

Dr. Sclater, the secretary of the Zoological Society of Lon-
don, in a paper upon the peculiarities of the vertebrate fauna
of New Zealand, remarks that these consist, first, in the ab-
sence of all mammals excepting two species of bats ; second,
the presence of numerous forms of birds not known elsewhere,
such as the Apteryx^ and others ; third, the absence of rep-
tiles, excepting two genera of lizards, and a third form of
lizard-like animal, considered by Dr. Gunther to constitute a
special order ; fourth, the absence of frogs, toads, and sala-
manders, with the exception of one sj)ecies of the first-men-
tioned genus ; fifth, a scarcity of fresh-water fishes, which are
allied partly to the Australian and partly to antarctic Amer-
ican forms ; and, sixth, the recent presence of a peculiar fam-
ily (Dinornis) of gigantic birds of the ostrich group, now ex-
tinct, 12 A, Jan. 5, 192.

FAUNAL PROVINCES OF THE WEST COAST OF AMERICA.

Iii the course of a critical comparison of the marine fauna?
of the east and west coasts of America, Professor Verrill takes
occasion to mark out what he considers to be the principal
zoological provinces of Western America. Taken in the or-
der of his enumeration, he commences with what he calls the
Sitchian Province, corresponding with the Syrtensian Prov-
ince of the Atlantic coast, and extending from the termina-
tion of the arctic or circumpolar fauna to the coast of Oregon.
The second, or Oregonian Province, includes the Puget Sound
coast, and that of Oregon to Cape Mendocino, and represents
the Acadian fauna on the east coast of America. The third,
or the Californian Province, reaches from Cape Mendocino
to Santa Barbara, and perhaps farther southward, and appar-
ently corresponds to the Virginian fauna on the Atlantic.
The precise southern extension of this fauna is not entirely
worked out, there being possibly two other provinces, the
Viegoan and Sonoran, as indicated by Professor Dana, filling
up the gap reaching to the Panaman Province. This in-
cludes the Gulf of California, and extends from Margarita

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 153

Bay, California, to Cape Blanco, Peru, and has three subdi-
visions or districts : the Mexican, covering the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, Cape St. Lucas, and the Mexican coast to Acapulco ;
the Panaman, including the coast of Central America and
the Bay of Panama; and the Ecuadoran, extending south-
ward from Panama Bay to Cape Blanco, Peru. The Galapa-
gos Province, according to Professor Verrill, may possibly be
a district of the preceding, but additional collections are nec-
essary to establish this point. The Peruvian Province, ex-
tending from Cape Blanco to Northern Chili, is apparently
well marked ; and the Chilian Province, embracing the mid-
dle coast of Chili, also has its peculiar fauna. The Arauca-
nian Province extends from Valdivia to the southwestern
coast of Patagonia ; while the last, or the Fuegian Province,
includes Southern California and the adjacent islands. Trans.
Conn. Acad., 1871.

HATJGHTON ON ANIMAL MECHANICS.

Professor Haughton, of Dublin, announces for immediate
publication his long-expected work on animal mechanics.
The author is well known as a comparative anatomist as
well as an excellent mathematician, two qualifications neces-
sary for the successful treatment of the subject. The Athe-
nceum is of the opinion that there has been no writer on ani-
mal mechanics since the time of Barrelli, in the seventeenth
century, so competent to discuss the subject as Dr. Haugh-
ton ; the brothers Weber, of Giessen, who have also written
on the subject, one of them an anatomist and the other a
mathematician, scarcely meeting the requirements in the
case. 15 ^4,1870, October 15, 504.

HAECKEL ON ABIOGENESIS.

Of all the disciples of the idea of the mechanical theoiy of
life, or of spontaneous generation, as connected, more or less,
with the Darwinian doctrine of evolution, one of the most
potent is Professor Ernst Haeckel, of Jena ; and his writings
in defense of the idea of abiogenesis are attracting much at-
tention. In a recent critical notice of his later publications
in Nature we find a statement of his views in this respect
which may be summed up, in his own words, in the following
striking, even if sometimes enigmatical, sentences:

G2

154 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

" 1. The forms of organisms, and of their organs, result en-
tirely from life, and simply from the interaction of two phys-
iological functions, heredity and adaptation.

" 2. Heredity is a part of the reproduction ; adaptation, on
the other hand, a part of the maintenance of the organism.
These two physiological functions depend, as do all forms of
vital activity, on the character of the physiological organ
through which they come into play.

" 3. The physiological organs of the organism are either
simple plastids (cytods or cells), or they are parts of plastids
(e. #., nuclei of cells, cilia of protoplasm), or they are built up
of numerous plastids (the majority of organs).

" In all these cases the forms and actions of the organs are
to be traced back to the forms and actions of the individual
plastids.

"4. Plastids are either simple cytods (structureless bits
of protoplasm without nuclei) or cells ; but since these last
have originally arisen from cytods by a differentiation of the
inner 'nucleus' and the outer 'protoplasm,' the forms and
vital properties of all plastids can be traced back to the sim-
plest cytods as their starting-point.

" 5. The simplest cytods, from which all other plastids (cy-
tods and cells) originally have arisen by heredity and adap-
tation, consist essentially and absolutely of nothing more
than a bit of structureless protoplasm an albuminoid, nitro-
genous carbon compound ; all other components of plastids
have been originally formed secondarily from protoplasm
(plasma products).

" G. The simplest independent organisms which we know,
and which, moreover, can be conceived, the monera, consist,
in fact, while living, of nothing else but the simplest cytod, a
structureless bit of protoplasm ; and since they exhibit all
forms of vital activity (nutrition, reproduction, irritability,
movement), these vital activities are here clearly bound on
to structureless protoplasm.

" V. Protoplasm, or germinal matter (Bildimgsstoff), also
called cell substance or primitive slime ( Urschleim), is there-
fore the single material basis (materielle Grundlage) to which,
without exception and absolutely, all so-called ' vital phe-
nomena' are radically bound. If the latter are regarded as
the result of a peculiar vital force independent of the proto-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 155

plasm, then necessarily also must the physical and chemical
properties of every inorganic natural body be regarded as
the result of a peculiar force not bound up with its substance.

" 8. The protoplasm of all plastids is, like all other albu-
minoid or protein bodies, composed of four inseparable ele-
ments carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to which
often, though not always, a fifth element namely, sulphur
is 'added.

" 9. The forms and vital properties of protoplasm are con-
ditioned by the peculiar manner in which carbon has com-
bined itself so as to form a highly developed compound with
the three or four other elements named. Compounds devoid
of carbon never exhibit those peculiar chemical and physical
properties which exclusively belong to only a part of the
compounds of carbon (the so-called ' organic compounds') ;
on this account modern chemistry has replaced the term ' or-
ganic compounds' by the more significant term ' carbon com-
pounds.'

" 10. Carbon, then, is that element, that indivisible funda-
mental substance which, in virtue of its peculiar physical and
chemical properties, stamps the various carbon compounds
with their peculiar organic character ; and in chief fashions
this protoplasm, the 'matter of life' (Zebensstoff), so that it
becomes the material basis of all vital phenomena.

"11. The peculiar properties which protoplasm and the
other component tissues and substances of the organism de-
rived secondarily from it exhibit, especially their viscid condi-
tion and aggregation, their continual change of matter (on the
one hand their facile decomposition, on the other their facile
power of assimilation), and their other 'vital properties,' are
therefore simply and entirely brought about by the peculiar
and complex manner in which carbon under certain condi-
tions can combine with the other elements.

"12. The entire properties of the organism are therefore
ultimately conditioned with equal necessity by the physical
and chemical properties of carbon, as are the entire properties
of every salt and every inorganic compound conditioned by
the physical and chemical properties of its component ele-
ments." 12 A,18n,Marc7i 2, 348.

156 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

DAinvi.v ON THE "descent of man."

Few scientific works have excited more attention than that
of Mr. Charles Darwin upon "The Descent of Man, and Selec-
tion in Relation to Sexes," the only parallel perhaps being
found in some previous works by the same author. This
treatise has already been discussed from almost every point
of view, and for a considerable time it was almost impossible
to take up a periodical at all interested in such subjects with-
out finding one or more notices of the book. Among the best
written of these criticisms may be cited one in The Academy,
from the pen of Mr. Alfred R.Wallace, himself a naturalist of
a high degree of eminence, and, although known to agree
with Mr. Darwin in some of his vieVs, yet entirely opposed
to him in others.

As summed up in this article, the first chapter of Mr. Dar-
win's book discusses the evidence for the descent of man
from some lower form, in which it is shown that man's entire
structure is comparable, bone by bone, and muscle by muscle,
with that of other vertebrata, while the close relationship is
shown in many other ways, such, for instance, as his ability
to receive certain animal diseases as glanders and hydro-
phobia; his having internal and external parasites of the
same families and genera as those of the lower animals ; and
in exhibiting an embryonic development so exactly similar
to that of other vertebrates that his embryo can scarcely be
distinguished. Much stress is laid upon the occurrence in
man of rudiments of structures characteristic of lower forms,
many muscles regularly present in the apes and other mam-
mals appearing occasionally in man, although sometimes in-
appreciable or wanting. When the mental powers of the
lower animals are compared with those of man they are found
to exhibit a strong resemblance, although more or less rudi-
mentary ; and in reference to the origin of the moral sense,
Mr. Darwin maintains that this arises from the social instincts
combined with an active intellect.

The manner of the development of man from some lower
form is next very fully discussed, attention being called to
the extreme variability of every part of his bodily structure
and mental faculties, the influence of changed conditions, and
the occurrence of arrested developments, reversions, and va-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 15V

nations, just as in the lower animals. Although natural se-
lection must have acted upon man as upon the lower animals,
yet Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace agree in the view that, as
soon as man's mind had become moderately developed, the
action of natural selection would become changed as regards
the general structure, and transferred to the mental faculties.
This advance from animal to man, it is thought, must have
taken place before the dispersal of the race over the world.

The author next discusses the special affinities of man to
the lower animals, by which the line of the genealogy can be
traced, and the time and place of his origin, together with the
nature and the probable origin of the several races of man.
The consideration of this latter subject necessitates the con-
sideration of sexual selection. The theory presented by Mr.
Darwin depends upon the almost invariable occurrence of a
struggle among males for the females a struggle carried on
by actual fighting, or by rivalry in voice or in beauty. This
produces two sets of modifications in male animals : first,
weapons of various kinds have been developed, owing to
those best able to fight having most frequently left progeny
to inherit their superiority ; and musical organs, bright col-
ors, or ornamental appendages, in consequence of the females
preferring males so gifted or adorned. This subject is treat-
ed of at great length, about five hundred pages of the orig-
inal edition being occupied by its consideration.

The sexual differences in man are stated by Mr. Darwin to
be greater than in most species of monkeys, while in their
general features and mode of development man agrees re-
markably with those animals one of these consisting in the
fact that whenever the beard differs in color from the hair on
the head, it is always lighter both in man and monkeys. The
law of battle for wives still prevails among some savages, just
as it does among wild animals ; and the admiration of certain
types of form and complexion, as involving the selection of
wives and husbands, is considered to have been an important
agent in determining both the races and the sexual differences
of mankind. In the final summary of the whole argument,
contained in the last chapter, Mr. Darwin maintains that the
whole evidence leads to the conclusion that man, whatever
his present character, mental and physical, bears still in his
bodily frame the stamp of a lowly origin.

158 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Most naturalists, from the times of Blumenbach and Cuvier,
in a systematic arrangement of the animal kingdom, have
considered man as either a type of a distinct suborder, class,
or even of a higher rank. Professor Huxley, however, and
other prominent men of science who have devoted special at-
tention to the critical comparison of the structure of man and
the apes, have insisted that as man, in all parts of his organi-
zation, differs less from the higher apes than these do from
the lower members of the same group, there is no justifica-
tion for placing him in a distinct order. In this view Mr.
Darwin agrees, but thinks that he may perhaps be entitled
to form a distinct suborder, or, at any rate, a family. Pro-
fessor Huxley divides the primates into three suborders,
namely, the Anthropodee, with man alone ; the jSimiadce, in-
cluding monkeys of all kinds ; and the Xemuridce, or lemurs,
with their variations and related forms ; and Mr. Darwin
thinks that, so far as differences in certain important points
of structure are concerned, man may rightly claim the rank
of a suborder, but that, if we look to his mental faculties
alone, this fank is too low. Again, on the other hand, in a
genealogical point of view, even subordinal rank is too high,
and man ought to form merely a family, or possibly only a
subfamily. Putting his creed into the plainest terms name-
ly, that man is a lineal descendant of some form of ape and
referring to the great differences between the apes of the Old
and New World, Mr. Darwin proceeds to inquire to which of
the two man's ancestry belongs. He finds that in the essen-
tials of the characteristics of the nose and of the premolar
teeth the relation is especially with the Old-World species,
and that, consequently, man must be considered as an off-
shoot from the Old-World monkey-stem. It is not, however,
to be inferred, according to our author, that man was identi-
cal with, or even closely related to, any existing ape or mon-
key, but that he diverged at an early period from the com-
mon stock, and that both divisions have probably been more
or less modified in the descent, so as to differ greatly from
their ancestors.

Since man belongs to the Old-World division of the anthro-
poid animals, his origin must have been, as already stated,
in the Old World, probably in Africa, for reasons adduced
by our author. The country inhabited by him was probably

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 159

hot, consequently involving the loss of his hairy covering,
and he is supposed to have lived upon fruits. The period of
divergence of man from the monkey stock is thought by Mr.
Darwin to have been as remote as that of the eocene ; and at
a time still more recent he supposes him to have been cover-
ed with hair, both sexes to have had beards, ears pointed and
capable of movement, and tails having the proper muscles.
The foot is supposed to have been prehensile at that time,
judging from the position of the great toe in the fetus, and
resting-places were probably occupied by him in trees, like
those of many apes of the present day. The males are sup-
posed by him to have been provided with great canine teeth,
serving as formidable weapons.

After presenting a summary of Mr. Darwin's views, as un-
derstood by Mr. Wallace in the article referred to, the latter
writer proceeds to take exceptions to some points enumera-
ted, as derived from his own extended observations in the
line of scientific research, but finally concludes his notice by
conceding that Mr. Darwin has all but demonstrated the' or-
igin of man by descent from some inferior form, that he has
proved the vast importance of sexual influences in modifying
the characters of the more highly organized animals, and that
he has thrown fresh light upon the mode of development of
the moral and intellectual nature of man.

In giving the views of Mr. Darwin as condensed by Mr.
Wallace, we of course are not to be considered as indorsing
them as having been accepted by the scientific world. The
work itself, in its immense array of facts, or, at least, of state-
ments, and in the logical precision with which they are ar-
rayed and brought up, either to form a hypothesis or sustain
it, is a store-house of information and a masterpiece of reason-
ing ; and though the general inferences may not be accepted
and adopted, there is no doubt that it will exercise a very
powerful influence upon the science of the day. It may be
stated, however, that the doctrine of evolution, which forms
so important a feature in Mr. Darwin's views, apart from
that of natural selection, is accepted to a very great extent
by a large proportion of the leading naturalists of the day,
and that their number is constantly increasing. 13 A, 1871,
177.

1G0 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

MR. WILLIAM THOMPSON OX DARWINIANISM.

Mr. William Thompson, in his address before the British
Association at Edinburgh, takes occasion to give in his adhe-
sion to the Darwinian views of evolution, and not only ex-
presses his belief that all the higher organisms now covering
the face of the earth have most probably developed them-
selves from lower ones, but suggests also that these were
most likely derived from meteoric stones and other matter
fallen from the planets. 13 A, 1871, August 15, 402.

CANNIBALISM IN EUROPE.

In spite of the opposition manifested by many persons to
the idea, it appears to be now w T ell established that the earli-
est inhabitants of Europe were cannibals ; and it is said that
it w r as a matter of religious observance with the ancient Irish
to eat their parents. 15 A, 1870, April 9, 489.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

Among the more recent investigations especially interest-
ing in a scientific point of view w T ere those upon spontaneous
generation as conducted by Dr. Bastian. It is well known
that Professor Huxley, in his address delivered before the
British Association in 1870, made special reference to these
inquiries, and came to the conclusion that the data upon
which Dr. Bastian based his conclusions were incorrect, and
that the existence of any thing like spontaneous generation,
if not finally disproved, at least required stronger arguments
than had been presented for its acceptance as a law.

Subsequently to this, Dr. Frankland, who has made many
experiments for Dr. Bastian, announced in Nature that he
had lately re-examined the entire subject with more critical
precautions than had hitherto been taken, and that he found
nothing whatever to show the occurrence of spontaneous gen-
eration. It is true that various movements of atoms were
observed, as stated by Dr. Bastian, but this movement was
found to be a mere Brownian motion, many of the particles
being minute splinters of glass, and without the slightest evi-
dence of life in any of them. This observation of Dr. Frank-
land would seem to settle the question for the present, and
render it necessary for the advocates of spontaneous genera-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 161

tion to bring forward further arguments, although Dr. Bas-
tian does not appear at all satisfied with the reasoning of Dr.
Frankland, to judge from the rejoinder he has published in
Nature for January 26. 12 A, 1871, Jan. 29, 225.

THEORY OP ATMOSPHERIC GERMS.

In a paper on the " Theory of Atmospheric Germs," by Dr.
Sansom, published in the April number of the Quarterly Jour-
nal of Science, after a critical examination and testing of the
various views held by different writers on this question, the
author comes to the following conclusions: " 1. Putrefaction,
mildew formation, and the appearance of organisms can be
checked or absolutely prevented by the existence of certain
agents in the air supplied to a putrescible body. 2. The pow-
er of such agents can in no sense be measured by their chem-
ical constitution and characters. From many experiments,
the following expresses their order of efficiency from weakest
to strongest : (1), chloride of lime ; (2), sulphurous acid, am-
monia, sulphuric ether; (3), chloroform; (4), camphor; (5),
iodine, phosphorus, creosote, carbolic acid. 3. The agents
which stop fermentation are vegetable, not animal poisons.
Fungi will grow in the presence of hydrocyanic acid and of
strychnia. 4. Comparative experiments show that a given
volatile a^ent is far more efficient when it is contained in the
air supplied to a putrescible solution than when an equal
quantity is mixed with the solution itself. 5. All fungoid or-
ganisms can be prevented by the presence of a minute pro-
portion of creosote, carbolic acid, ammonia, hydrochloric acid,
or sulphurous acid in the air, though beneath the surface of
the fluid are' found numerous bacteria and vibrios. There
seems to be no escape from the conclusion that the germs of
fungi exist in the air, and are destroyed by the volatile poi-
sonous agent." 16 A, 1871, 169.

ATMOSPHERIC GERMS.

During a lecture by Professor Tyndall upon dust and smoke,
he took occasion to make renewed reference to the influence
of atmospheric action upon putrefaction and decomposition,
and reiterated his belief that contagious disease is generally
of a parasitic nature, and is propagated by spores floating
through the atmosphere as positively, to all intents and pur-

162 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

poses, as a crop of wheat is raised from its seed. He dwelt
upon experiments by Recklingshauser in regard to the devel-
opment of blood, and stated that he had himself seen in the
laboratory of that gentleman blood which had been three
weeks, four weeks, and five weeks out of the body preserved
in little porcelain cuj:>s under glass shades, and which was
then living and growing, the amoeba-like movements of the
white corpuscles being present, with abundant evidence of
growth and development ; also a frog's heart still pulsating
which had been removed from the body more than a week.
This was attributed to the entire absence of putrefactive
germs, the instruments employed having been raised to a red
heat just before use, and the suspending threads of silver
wire being similarly heated. It is also stated that the reme-
dial effect of bandages, plasters, etc., upon wounds and sores
is in large part dependent upon the exclusion of atmospheric
germs by their application, and that it is now considered one
of the cardinal principles in surgery to protect, as far as pos-
sible, any injured surface from the entrance of such germs.
12-4, 1811) June 15,124.

CALVERT ON SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

Mr. Crace Calvert, well known for his researches upon proto-
plasmic life in its different conditions, has recently instituted
a series of inquiries as to whether the germs existing or pro-
duced in a liquid in a state of fermentation or of putrefaction
could be conveyed to a liquid susceptible of entering into
these states, and has presented the first results of his inqui-
ries to the Royal Society of London. In the course of his ex-
periments he was astonished to find how rapid the develop-
ment of germ life may be under certain circumstances. Thus,
if the white of a new-laid egg be mixed with water (free from
life), and exposed to the atmosphere for only fifteen minutes
in the month of August or September, it will show life in
abundance. For this reason he was misled in many of his
earlier experiments in not being sufficiently careful to avoid
even momentary exposure to the atmosphere. To the want
of a knowledge of this fact he ascribes all the erroneous con-
elusions arrived at by several persons who have devoted their
attention to the subject of spontaneous generation. Refer-
ring to the paper itself for details, we may say that a positive

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 163

conclusion against the truth of the theory of spontaneous
generation was reached by Mr. Calvert, ranging him thus on
the side of Professor Huxley, Professor Tyndall, and others,
as against Dr. Bastian and his confreres. One of his experi-
ments tended to show that although oxygen appeal's to favor
the development of germs, it does not appear to favor their
reproduction, and that the increase of life in an albumen so-
lution is not due to reproduction merely, but to the introduc-
tion of fresh germs from the atmosphere. 1 A, July 14, 13.

HEREDITARY DEFORMITIES.

Dr. Wetherill furnishes to Nature an interesting contribu-
tion on the subject of hereditary deformities. In referring
to the former practice of the squaws of the Sioux Indians, in
having small disks, from one eighth to one fourth of an inch
in diameter, tattooed upon the prominences of their cheek-
bones, he states that, during a visit, some years ago, to the
country inhabited by these people, he was informed by a
physician of the tribes that sometimes a child was born with
these marks, and the statement was confirmed by the Indian
agent. We regret that the doctor was unable, as he states,
to verify the occurrence by personal observation, as, if true, it
would be a fact of extreme interest. 12 A, 1870, Dec. 29,168.

NO DISTINCTION BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

In a lecture before the University of Edinburgh, by Profes-
sor TVyville Thomson, the distinguished author took occasion
to say that while the distinction between inorganic bodies
and organized beings instinct with life appears clear, it is im-
possible to draw a definite line between the animal and the
vegetable kingdoms. In the course of his inquiries he dis-
cusses the fourth kingdom of Ernest Haeckel, the Monera, the
cells of which differ from others by the absence of a nucleus,
and the total want of differentiation of any parts, and con-
cludes that not only there is no satisfactory basis for such a
fourth kingdom, but that we must take organic nature as a
whole, that the animal and vegetable kingdoms are absolute-
ly continuous, and that a tree is scarcely distinguishable from
a gigantic nummulite, only building a cellulose instead of a
calcareous shell, and developing a special secretion in special
organs for the purpose of enabling it to do so. 12 A, Jane
1,92.

1C4 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

RATIO OF THE SPINAL MARROW TO THE BRAIN.

Professor Mantegazza, in the Italian Journal of Anthro-
pology and Ethnology , proposes a new expression of the re-
lation between the different races of man and animals, based
on the comparison of the area of the occipital foramen and
the total internal capacity of the skull, or the ratio of the
spinal marrow to the brain, which he calls the cephalo-spinal
index. This index he considers to be less variable than the
so-called cephalic index, or the relation between the longitudi-
nal and transverse diameters of the cranium. 13 -4,1871,
June 1,288.

ORIGIN OF CIVILIZATION.

Sir John Lubbock, in his work on " The Origin of Civiliza-
tion, and the Primitive Condition of Man," comes to the fol-
lowing conclusions from his extensive researches : First, that
existing savages are not the descendants of civilized ances-
tors ; second, " that the primitive condition of man was one
of utter barbarism ;" third, " that from this condition several
races have raised themselves." His inference, therefore, is
that the history of the human race has, on the whole, been
one of progress. He does not mean to say that every race is
necessarily advancing. On the contrary, most of the lower
ones are almost stationary, and there are no doubt cases in
which nations have fallen back ; but it seems an almost inva-
riable rule that such races are dying out, while those that are
stationary in condition are stationary in numbers also. On
the other hand, improving nations increase in numbers, so
that they always encroach on those less progressive. 16 A,
1871, October, 508.

SUBSTITUTION OF STRONTIAN, ETC., FOR LIME IN BONE.

According to some investigations ofM. Papillon, presented
to the Academy of Sciences in Paris, it has been ascertained
that a certain percentage of strontian, magnesia, or alumina
may be substituted for the lime normally present in bone,
without affecting essentially its condition. The experiments
were tried upon pigeons and other animals, by supplying
them with water mixed with the different salts of potash and
soda, and with grain incrusted by a fine paste of one or other

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 165

of the ingredients in question. While no particular influence
seemed to be exercised upon the animal by this novel regi-
men, on its being killed and the bones subjected to a chem-
ical examination, the particular substance experimented with
was found to enter in very considerable quantity into the
ash. 6 JB, August 16, 373.

PERMANENCE OF BONE.

Karl Aeby discusses the cause of the permanence of the
organic substance of bone, and comes to the conclusion that
its resistance to putrefaction is a consequence of the small
quantity of water it contains, which, besides, is in chemical
combination, fresh bones having about eleven or twelve per
cent, of water and twenty-eight of organic matter. As a
proof that the water is combined chemically, Mr. Aeby men-
tions that thoroughly dried and finely pulverized bones, when
moistened, become considerably heated (one gram of bone
evolving about twelve units of heat). This chemically com-
bined water seems to act the part of water of crystallization,
and can not induce putrefaction, while the rigidity of the in-
organic substance prevents swelling i. e., the reception of
more water from the outside. Crushed and finely pulverized
bones, on the contrary, swell by soaking, and then speedily
putrefy. 18 (7, 1871, xvn., 266.

DESTRUCTIBILITY OF HUMAN BONES.

Mr. Pengelly, in the Quarterly Journal of Science, in reply
to a question which has often been asked as to the reason
why we do not find the bones of the men who made the un-
polished flint implements as well as the implements them-
selves a doubt thereby being thrown upon the human origin
of these articles takes occasion to show, by a careful colla-
tion of the evidence on the subject, that human bones have
been found in repeated instances by reliable observers in Eng-
land, France, Belgium, and elsewhere; and furthermore, that
even if nothing of this sort were discoverable, human agency
in the production of these implements is as distinctly shown
as the print of a naked foot proved to Robinson Crusoe the
presence of a second human being on his desert island. He
also shows that there is a great difference in the bones of
different animals as to the length of time their remains are

166 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

preserved, and that in all probability human bones are much
less permanent in their structure than those of many other
animals. He cites experiments by Dr. Lindley, in which one
hundred and seventy-seven specimens of plants, belonging to
different natural orders, including those which are constantly
present as fossils in the coal measures, and those also which
are universally absent, were placed in water in a tank and
left for two years untouched water being simply poured in
to replace that which was wasted by evaporation. At the
end of that time it was found that certain kinds had entirely
disappeared, while others had left some more or less recog-
nizable traces ; and again others, especially fungi, ferns, and
coniferous trees, precisely those which are generally found
fossilized, were comparatively well preserved.

He also remarks, in regard to the mollusca, that certain
shells, like oysters and limpets, are found more frequently
than others, such as cockles, this seeming to be a curious
fact, the material of both being the same, namely, carbonate
of lime and animal matter. It has, however, been shown
that, under certain conditions, the carbonate of lime in lim-
pets and oysters assumed the form of calcite, while in cockle-
shells and their allies it took the form of arragonite, the mole-
cules of the latter form being in much less stable equilibrium
than those of the former, and consequently much more liable
to disappear under unfavorable circumstances.

As an instance, showing the readiness with which human
bones disappear, Mr. Pengelly cites the fact that the Dutch
government in 1853 drained off the Haarlem Lake, on which
there had been many shipwrecks and naval fights, and where
thousands had found a watery grave. The canals and trenches
dug to a considerable depth through the rescued land must
have had an aggregate length of thousands of miles, and yet
not a sinsrle human bone was exhumed from first to last.
Some weapons and a few coins, and one or two wrecked ves-
sels, alone rewarded the antiquaries who watched the opera-
tions with the hope of a rich harvest. Here, as in cavern
deposits and river gravels generally, works of art alone fur-
nished evidence of the existence of man, even though no part
of the deposit could be more than three hundred years old,
as the lake was formed by an inundation toward the end of
the sixteenth century. 16 A,Jidy, 1871, 327.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 16 V
COMPOSITION OF THE BONES IN PARALYTICS.

During an investigation of the composition of the rib-
bones of general paraly tics by Mr. Brown, the conclusion was
reached that the ratio of organic constituents to earthy mat-
ter is much greater, and the ratio of lime to phosphoric acid
distinctly less, in them than in the ribs of healthy adults,
these being; the same differences that exist between the com-
position of adult large bones and those of the fetus. Whether
this peculiarity in the ribs of paralytics is due to arrest of
development or to a degeneration of the fully developed bone
the author does not feel able to decide at present, but he is
under the impression that both causes will be found to op-
erate. The result of the experiments he considers rather as
suggestive than conclusive, it being unsafe to generalize from
so few examples. He therefore advises farther research on
the subject, with the hope of arriving at some definite and
final conclusion.

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON ANIMAL ECONOMY.

In the proceedings of the Royal Society of London will be
found a paper by Dr. Rattray upon some of the more impor-
tant physiological changes induced in the human economy
by a change of climate, as from temperate to tropical and the
reverse, the inquiries being directed toward the peculiarities
of respiration, the pulse, temperature of the body, kidneys
and skin, and weight and strength. In regard to the subject
of respiration, the author shows, as the result of many experi-
ments, that in the tropics there is an increase in the capacity
of the chest for air, with a decrease of the number of respira-
tions, from which it results that the lungs, unaltered in size,
contain less blood and more air in tropical than in temperate
climates, the blood being in part diverted to the excited skin
and liver. The benefit derived in the early stage of con-
sumption by a sojourn in a tropical climate he explains in
the following manner : " Residence in a warm atmosphere is
followed by a decrease in the quantity of blood in the affect-
ed lungs, by diminished activity in the vital processes car-
ried on therein, by facilitated respiration, and, above all, by
diminished lung-work from vicarious action of the physiolog-
ically excited skin and liver; while the inhalations of milder,

168 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

more equable, and less irritant air diminish the chances of
excitement and increase of distressing local inflammation,
and those bronchial attacks so apt to break up old, and cause
the deposition of new tubercles. Now if we can imitate na-
ture's operations, and, by increasing the tempera tu re of a
sick-room or ward in the temperate climate of England, can
convert it into a local subtropical or tropical climate, we
withdraw no inconsiderable amount of blood from the lungs
to the skin and liver, thus relieving its overloaded capillaries,
permitting freer access of air, and so aiding the respiratory-
process a safe and sure mode, both of relieving dyspnoea
and cough, and aiding the vis medicatrix."

This law, according to the author, is suggestive in relation
to the nature of food and to hygiene in the tropics. He cal-
culates that, in a tropical climate, the lungs eliminate less
carbon to the extent of above an ounce in the twenty-four
hours than in England. Hence he infers that in hot countries
the diet should be less carbonaceous than at home, and that,
independently of the diet, especial attention should be paid
to the condition of the skin. 20 A, May 27, 613.

EATTEAY OX CHANGE OF CLIMATE.

We have - already noticed an essay by Dr. Rattray upon the
effect of change of climate upon the human economy, and in
a concluding article of his series we find some remarks upon
the influence of warm latitudes upon the weight and strength.
Repeated observations have shown a decided reduction in the
weight, the cause of this being threefold : first, a diminished
necessity for surplus fat, which becomes absorbed ; secondly,
that peculiar effect of heat which causes the tissues to decay
faster in a warm climate than in a cold one ; and, thirdly, di-
minished lung-work and blood oxygenation, and thereby an
imperfect renewal of the tissue. As the general conclusions
from the entire investigation conducted by Dr. Rattray, we
have the following summary : 1st. That the tropics, especially
during the rainy season, should be avoided by natives of
colder latitudes ; 2d. That the young, the debilitated, and the
diseased should especially shun warm regions ; 3d. That none
but full-grown, healthy adults should go there; 4th. That
with all, even the latter, a speedy exit should be made there-
from when great loss of flesh and strength gives warning of

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 169

approaching disease; 5th. That such injurious agencies as
may increase the weakening and disease-inducing influences
of tropical climates, of themselves irremediable, should be
avoided e.g.^ faulty diet, overfatigue, impure air, etc. ; 6th.
That to preserve health, a tropical climate should be frequent-
ly changed for the more temperate ones of higher altitudes
or latitudes. 20 A, July 1,18.

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL.

The effects of alcohol have recently been tested in London
by experiments upon a healthy soldier. The course of treat-
ment was as follows : For the first six days no alcohol was
given ; for the next six days from one to eight ounces of al-
cohol were given in divided doses ; for the next six days wa-
ter alone ; and then for three days twelve ounces of brandy,
containing 48 per cent, of alcohol. The results are reported
to be as follows : No appreciable difference was perceived in
the weight during the course of the experiments, but the tem-
perature of the body was slightly raised. The pulse was ma-
terially affected, rising from 77.5 beats per minute before
taking the alcohol to 94.7 after the largest doses.

Estimating the normal daily work of the ventricles of the
heart as equivalent to the lifting of 122 tons a foot, it was
found that during the alcoholic period the heart was com-
pelled to lift an excess of 15.8 tons, and during the last two
days, of 24 tons. The conclusion arrived at was, that alcohol
is utterly useless in health, and positively injurious in larger
quantities than two ounces daily. There, however, seemed
to be indicated an advantage in its use if employed in rous-
ing a feeble appetite or exciting a feeble heart. 1 A, June 3,
253.

EFFECT OF A CONTINUED BREAD DIET ON MEN AND DOGS.

According to experiments of Meyer, neither man nor dogs
can be fed economically upon bread alone, an immense quan-
tity of this substance being required to prevent the body
from undergoing waste. By the addition of a small percent-
age of flesh, a much less amount of total weight of food will
answer the desired object. A persistence in the bread diet
causes the tissues of the body to become more watery, and
the entire organization is less capable of resisting injurious

H

170 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

influences. In experimenting upon different kinds of bread,
Meyer found that white wheat bread was taken up in the
greatest amount during its passage through the alimentary
canal ; next to this, leavened rye bread ; then the rye pre-
pared by the Horsford process ; and, finally, the North Ger-
man black bread. With all these differences, however, the
first kind is said to be less satisfying to the feeling of hunger
than the other three, and to be more expensive in every point
of view. Meyer does not admit that bran has the nutritious
value claimed for it by many persons, since the nitrogenous
compounds it contains are mingled with much non-assimila-
ble matter. 12 A, April 20, 497.

PARKES OX EFFECT OF DIET AND EXERCISE ON ELIMIMATION

OF NITROGEN.

Dr. Parkes, while investigating the effect of diet and exer-
cise on the elimination of nitrogen, had for his subject a very
healthy, powerful, and temperate young soldier. He conduct-
ed one series of experiments in which the man was fed on or-
dinary diet, and the amount of nitrogen-content w T as kept as
near as possible constant. In a second series prepared food
was given so as to keep the amount of nitrogen introduced
perfectly constant ; and a third series was made with non-
nitrogenous food. These experiments show T ed distinctly an
increased elimination of nitrogen in the period of rest after
severe exercise, confirming Dr. Parkes's former results, and
supporting the statement of Liebig on this point, in opposi-
tion to that of Voit. Whether it was diminished during ex-
ercise or not was not clearly shown by the experiments.
The non-nitrogenous diet for five days neither raised nor low T -
ered the temperature in the rectum of the patient, but appar-
ently did not affect the health, nor did it alter the frequency
of the pulse ; but the heart's action became weak, and the
pulse soft. The experiments proved that force necessary for
great muscular work can be obtained by the muscle from fat
and starch, though changes in the nitrogenous constituents
of the muscles also go on, which have, as one effect, an in-
creased elimination of nitrogen after the cessation of the
work. 21 A, June, 413.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. lTl

THE DELHI BOIL.

Intestinal worms, or entozoa, are, as is well known, fre-
quent guests of the animal body, not even excepting that of
man, and take up their abode, uninvited indeed, but none the
less persistently, in almost every part of the system, whether
in the intestines, the viscera, the eyeball, the brain, the mus-
cles, or the skin. A newly discovered form of its intrusion
appears to occur in what is called the Delhi boil, an affection
which prevails in India, especially where impure water is
used for ablution. The dogs drinking this water have these
boils on the nose, while human beings are affected at the
points where the skin is rubbed in the act of washing. A
microscopical examination of the boil is said to show the
presence of eggs of an intestinal worm belonging to the
group of Distomata, of which the sheep-fluke is a well-known
representative. These appear to penetrate the skin and pro-
duce the ulcer in question. 12 A, August 25, 329.

NET-WORK OP COAGULATED BLOOD.

An Australian microscopist corroborates the statement of
Neumann that the net-work formed by coagulation in human
blood can be distinguished under the microscope from that
of the blood of other animals. If a small drop be placed on
a microscope slide and carefully watched, at a temperature
of fifty-five to sixty degrees it will be found to be broken up
into a small pattern net-work, while that of other animals,
such as the calf, pig, etc., requires a longer time for coagula-
tion and fills a larger pattern ; each species tested, however,
having its own peculiar design, is readily recognized under
the microscope. 17 A, September ', 132.

AX EIGHTH RIB IX MAX.

Mr. Perrin makes a communication to Nature in regard to
the occasional occurrence of an eighth true rib in man, al-
though it has been generally considered that seven form the
absolute limit. This eighth rib is sometimes found on one
side only, still more rarely on both sides, and it is suggested
by Mr. Perrin that cases of this abnormal character possibly
occur more frequently than has been suspected. The max-
imum normal number of sternal ribs appears to be ten, but

172 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

in the higher primates the tenth, ninth, and eighth are suc-
cessively lost in the transition from their lower to the higher
forms. In the carnivore the sternal ribs are usually nine, al-
though the Esquimaux dog, the arctic wolf, and the proteles
have only eight. The common badger of Europe has ten
true ribs. 12-4, 1871.

DIFFERENCE IX THE BLOOD OF THE EUROPEAN AND THE

BENGALEE.

According to Dr. Bird, the blood of the Bengalee contains
far fewer red corpuscles than that of the European ; and it is
to a deficiency in these corpuscles that the doctor ascribes
the apathy of the Bengalee and his consequent subjection to
the more sanguine European. The difference in question is
believed to be due chiefly, if not wholly, to the circumstances
in which the lot of each has been cast, since the inhabitants
of swamps and jungles are supposed to be necessarily of
lower organization than those of breezy and well-cultivated
uplands. In farther comment upon this statement, it is re-
marked that throughout the animal kingdom generally the
presence of these globules in greater or less proportions indi-
cates a higher or lower organization, as they are absent from
the blood of mollusks, but appear in increasing numbers at
every upward stage in the scale of vitality, and in this way
making one of the physical distinctions between man and
woman. The moral elevation, therefore, of the Bengalee, as
well as of woman, according to this theory, must depend
largely upon some treatment which may tend to increase the
amount of red corpuscles, and this is a problem which ought
not to be difficult of solution in this day of extended physio-
logical discovery. 6 A, October 29, 1870, 559.

SKIN-GRAFTING.

Several successful operations of so-called skin-grafting have
lately been performed in Paris and London, as well as in New
York. This consists in transplanting portions of healthy skin
from one part of the body to some other which is in a dis-
eased condition. In one instance fourteen patches were trans-
ferred on the same patient so as to produce a very great im-
provement in her personal appearance. Care should be taken
to transplant no fat, but only the skin, which must be accu-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 173

rately applied to the granulating surface. 5 A, January,
1871,100.

GRAFTING OF FART OF ONE ANIMAL IN ANOTHER.

Many curious accounts have been published of the readi-
ness with which the living portion of one animal can be graft-
ed into the body of another, and continue to grow indefinitely
afterward, so as to constitute an integral portion of the lat-
ter. An interesting case of this kind has been published by
Mr. Phillipeaux, although the experiment itself was made
nearly twenty years ago. The gentleman in question, after
having made an incision in the head of a young cock, intro-
duced into it the incisor tooth of a Guinea-pig that had been
born a few hours previously, and which, complete and fur-
nished with its bulb, was so placed that, the bulb being at
the bottom of the wound, the extremity of the tooth turned
outward. On the day the experiment was made the tooth
was eight millimetres long and two millimetres thick, and
when the animal was killed, ten months afterward, the total
length of the tooth was found to measure thirteen millime-
tres. While at the beginning of the experiment the tooth
was completely imbedded in the incision made, at the expira-
tion of the period mentioned it projected five millimetres
from the surface. The interest of this experiment consists
in the fact of a graft having been made from one animal to
another of an entirely different class, which, of course, is more
astonishing than the transfer of the spur of a cock to its
comb, as made by Hunter and Sir Astley Cooper, or the
amusing operation, said to have been performed by some
French Zouaves, of introducing the end of the tail of a rat
into the skin of the forehead, and after keeping it in that po-
sition until the juncture had taken place, cutting off a portion
of the tail and leaving it to project from the forehead like a
horn, thus producing an animal of such an extraordinary
physiognomy as to have deluded a naturalist into the belief
that he had before him a remarkable new form of rodent.
12 A, July 28,262.

m'donald's theory of nervous action.

Dr. Robert M'Donald has presented a new theory of nerv-
ous action to the Royal Irish Academy, this being expressed

174 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

in the words of the author as follows : " I conceive that the
various peripheral expansions of sensitive nerves take up un-
dulations or vibrations, and convert them into waves, capable
of being propagated along nervous tissue (neuricity, as it has
been named). Thust he same nerve tubule may be able to
transmit along it vibrations differing in character, and hence
give rise to different sensations ; and, consequently, the same
nerve tubule may, in its normal condition, transmit the wave
which produces the idea of simple contact, or that which pro-
duces the idea of heat ; or, again, the same nerve tubules in
the optic nerve which propagate the undulations of red, may
also propagate, in normal vision, those which excite the idea
of yellow or blue, and so for other senses. I advocate this
undulatory theory of sensation in preference to the theory of
distinct conductors : first, because it is simple ; second, be-
cause it is strongly supported by analogy when compared
with wave propagations in other departments of science ;
third, because it appears to be in harmony with a large num-
ber of recognized physiological facts, which seem inexplicable
upon the theory of distinct conductors." 5 A^July^ 329.

MIND IX LOW^ER ANIMALS.

Dr. Lauder Lindsay, in an essay which has excited some
attention, takes the ground that the mind of the lower ani-
mals does not differ in kind from that of man, and that they
possess the same affections, virtues, moral sense, and capacity
for education, and are liable to the same kinds of mental dis-
orders. 12 A, June 29, 169.

EAPIDITY OF MENTAL TRANSMISSIONS IN A NERVE.

Professor Helmholtz has made some new measurements of
the rapidity with which excitation is propagated along the
motor nerves of man from the brain to the muscles. The as-
certained rapidity of the excitation varies between 2G0 and
292 feet per second, and is also found to be greater in the
summer season than in winter. This result led to a more ex-
act observation of the influence of temperature, which was
ascertained by the artificial cooling or warming of the arm.
By this means the accelerating influence of a higher temper-
ature has been clearly determined, so as to show that the
interval of time between an impulse of the voluntary power

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 175

and the corresponding movement of the muscle is greater in
winter than in summer.

IS THE BRAIN A GALVANIC BATTERY ?

Among the supposed facts relied upon to prove that the
animal brain is a battery, which can send currents of electric-
ity through the nerves so as to act upon the muscles, is an
experiment referred to by Mr. C. F.Varley, which consists in
connecting the two terminals of a very sensitive galvanome-
ter with separate basins of water. If a hand be placed in
each basin, and one be squeezed violently, a positive current
is said generally to flow from that hand through the galva-
nometer to the other hand, which is not compressed. Mr.
Varley, however, after various experiments, has come to the
conclusion that the phenomenon is due to chemical action
alone, the act of squeezing the hand violently forcing some
of the perspiration out of the pores. This is proved by the
fact that when both hands were placed in the water, and a
little acid was dropped on one of them, a current was gener-
ated without any muscular exertion. Mr. Varley found noth-
ing to show that electricity exists in the human body, either
as a source of motive power or otherwise, and he considers
the feeble electricity obtained from the muscles to be due to
the dhTerent chemical conditions of different portions of the
muscles themselves. As the force transmitted by the nerves
is at a rate about 200,000 times slower than an electric cur-
rent, he infers that it can not be an electric current itself.

13^4, March 1,161.

HALFORD CURE FOR SNAKE-BITES.

The much -talked -of method adopted by Dr. Halford, of
Melbourne, for curing the bite of poisonous serpents, by in-
jecting under the skin about 30 drops of liquor ammonia?,
has not succeeded very well in experiments in India and
some other parts of the world. In a recent communication
Dr. Halford remarks that as the power of the ammonia inject-
ed is expended, fresh supplies must be used, and that the
greatest care must be taken that none of the ammonia be
spilled, or sloughing will follow. He has changed his views
in regard to the physiological action of the poison and of the
remedy, to the extent that whereas formerly he thought that,

170 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

in consequence of the entrance of the poison into the blood, a
rapid growth of new cells occurred, which choke and exhaust
both the fibrin and the oxygen of the blood, and render it in-
capable of any longer ministering to the wants of the system,
he now thinks that the new corpuscles are only the ordinary
white corpuscles of the blood strangely altered and colored,,
the change in them being caused by an alteration of the me-
dium in which they float ; this alteration being, in fact, a dis-
appearance of the fibrin under the action of the poison. The
ammonia, of course, in Dr. Halford's view, counteracts this
power of the poison. 13 A, September 13, 319.

1IALFOKD METHOD OF CURING SNAKE-BITES.

A great contrariety of opinion seems to exist in regard to
the value of Dr. Halford's method of treating snake-bites.
The American and European physiologists who have discuss-
ed the question, or who have repeated the experiments, ap-
pear to attach very little value to it, but the Australian fac-
ulty are quite unanimous in their indorsement.

Professor Halford, in a recent communication, discusses the
symptoms of 20 cases treated by his process, under the hands
of different practitioners, widely remote from each other. In
17 cases recovery followed, and in 13 of these the practition-
ers were of the opinion that death would certainly have en-
sued without this counteracting agency. The treatment con-
sists in injecting about three minims of dilute ammonia, of
the specific gravity of .959, into a superficial vein, by piercing
its coats with the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe. The cura-
tive effect is said to be almost immediate, and several physi-
cians stated that the recovery from collapse was so rapid and
startling as to be almost magical. It still remains a ques-
tion, however, whether, notwithstanding Dr. Halford's assur-
ances, the Australian snakes are really as venomous as those
of America the contrary being, it is understood, the opinion
of Dr. Krefft, of Sydney. We await with much interest the
result of renewed experiments in this country, and can only
express the hope that the application may be successful in
cases of bites of rattlesnakes and copperheads, since in the
latest memoir on the venom of the rattlesnake, by Dr. Mitch-
ell, of Philadelphia, he expresses the opinion positively that
no remedy exists in cases where the poison is mature, and has

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY, m

been fairly introduced into the circulation in sufficient quan-
tity. 12 A, September 8, 381.

MBOUNDOU POISON.

Mr. Da Chaillu, in the account of his travels, gives some
interesting particulars in regard to the use, by the natives, of
what he calls the ordeal root of Goumbe, or the mboundou
of the natives. A recent report upon this plant to the Paris
Academy informs us that it is a new species of the strychnine
group, differing somewhat from the true strychnine, as shown
by experiments prosecuted upon frogs, in not causing rigidi-
ty. When a very weak dose is injected under the skin of a
frog, the poison simply produces constraint in the limbs, or a
sort of paralysis, which prevents it from leaping easily, and
forces it to crawl. With a larger dose similarly introduced,
tetanic convulsions are brought on when the animal is touch-
ed, or when the table on which it lies is struck by the hand.
Unlike the action of woorari, the power of muscular contrac-
tion is not impaired when the operator excites the nerves.
17 A, September, 131.

POISON OF THE SCORPION.

Quite a diversity of opinion has prevailed among observers
in regard to the true character of the poison of the scorpion,
and the danger from wounds inflicted by it, this, perhaps, de-
pendent to a great degree upon the difference in the species
examined. By some its bite is thought to be more fatal than
that of the venomous serpents ; but, on the other hand, there
are not wanting those who ridicule the idea of any dangerous
consequences. In a recent paper by Jousset, the subject is
critically investigated, and the results of experiments upon
three species are presented. One of these, the common scor-
pion of Europe, is dismissed by him as being entirely insig-
nificant, on account of its small size, which scarcely exceeds
an inch in length. A second species, the Scorpio occitcmus,
is more than twice the length of the first mentioned, and its
bite proved to be in many cases very serious, although not
fatal. A third species, however, the African scorpion, which
sometimes attains a length-of from four to six inches, our au-
thor found not unfrequently to produce a mortal wound. As
is well known, the venomous apparatus of the scorpion is sit-

H2

178 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

dated in the end of the tail, and consists of a blackish, re-
curved point, pierced near its tip by two small slits, which
allow the venom to pass into the wound when inflicted. But
even with the most venomous species the result is not an in-
stantaneous death in the case of the larger vertebrates, a cer-
tain length of time being required to allow the physiological
effect of the poison to develop itself. The venom is a color-
less and limpid liquid, acid, soluble in water, but little so in
alcohol, insoluble in ether, and of a density a little greater
than that of water. A microscopical examination shows it
to be a perfectly transparent liquid, with a few epithelial cells
and fine granules.

When we consider the small quantity of poison which a
scorpion can emit, scarcely the three hundredth part of a
grain, and bear in mind that this may cause death in a large
dog, we may well admit that the animal is in reality much
more poisonous than even the rattlesnake, of whose venom a
much larger amount is usually injected into the wound.

Our author, after narrating an extensive series of experi-
ments, made principally upon the frog, came to the conclu-
sion that the venom, in its poisonous influence, acts directly
upon the red globules of the blood, and in no other way, caus-
ing them to lose their individuality and to become agglutina-
ted together, so as to constitute masses, which obstruct the
entrance to the capillaries, and thus stop the circulation, ulti-
mately producing death. This is generally unaccompanied
by any inflammation, the skin in the frog assuming a violet
tint, and seeming as if injected. The particular member in-
fected generally becomes completely rigid. G Z?, Sept. 5, 407.

ABBE MOIGXO OX THE MODERN ARGUMENTS RELATIVE TO

THE AXTIQUITY OF MAX*

During some remarks at the late meeting of the British
Association, which followed the reading of a paper by the
Abbe Richard upon certain flint implements found in Joshua's
tomb at Galgula and at Mount Sinai, the Abbe Moigno, the
well-known editor of Les Mondes, said that he had spent nine
months of a painful and dangerous leisure given him by the
Franco-German and the civil wa*rs in studying thoroughly
the great and solemn question of the indefinite or very re-
mote antiquity of man, in so far as it had been proved by the

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 179

discovery of human remains, or those of human industry,
found in the ground at a greater or lesser depth. He had
carefully read, or rather studied in the most complete man-
ner, all that had been published on that subject the works
of Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Evans, Prestwich, Pengelly,
Buchan,Vogt, Desor, Morlot, De Mortillet, etc. For many
years he had read and followed all that had been written on
these subjects, and he now made it his duty to declare sol-
emnly, after this tiresome and patient study, that none of the
discoveries, none of the facts brought forward, often with a
great deal of precision, have the importance that has been at-
tributed to them ; that not only the existence of man in the
pliocene, eocene, and miocene ages, as Dr. Evans had de-
clared so authoritatively, is not at all proved, but that the
quaternary soils in which human remains or remains of hu-
man industry have been found are certainly moving soils,
movable on declivities, as is affirmed by the eminent geolo-
gist, M. Elie de Beaumont ; that the soils of the stalagmitic
caves, like the celebrated cave of Torquay, which so much
occupied the attention of the British Association, have been
overrun by water, or some other natural agent, in such a
manner that the layers of mud originally laid on the stalag-
mites have slipped below them, but that even geology must
remain quite apart from archaeology and human palaeontolo-
gy, because its work had come to an end when man had ap-
peared on the earth.

He added, while requesting indulgence for the liberty he
was taking, that the question of man, in connection with ge-
ology or palaeontology, is exactly at the same point which
this question had formerly : first, its relations with the history
of Indian astronomy as practiced by the unfortunate Bailly, at
the time when Laplace threw so brilliant a light on the errors
of his illustrious fellow-laborer ; second, in its relaitons with
the discoveries of the zodiacs of Denderah and of Esne, from
his investigations of which the immortal Champollion earned
the name of Ccesar Autocrator. The arguments in favor of the
existence of man several ages previous to the epoch fixed by
the Holy Bible for the creation of Adam an epoch which it
is, however, impossible to determine, and which can be taken
back to 10,000 years had reached their maximum to-day;
they would only decrease day by day until they vanished.
18 A, August 25,563.

180 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTEY.

ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

Professor Duncan, in addressing the British Association
upon the principal geological changes which have occurred
in Europe since the appearance of man, premised that no
trace of man has been found associated with any deposits
formed during the glacial period in Northern Europe. The
earliest remains of man and his works, and of the beasts as-
sociated with him and hunted by him, rCst upon these depos-
its resulting from glacial causes, and are, therefore, later in
time. A second period, however, of mountain glacialization
took place, when the glaciers of the Alps and Pyrenees espe-
cially extended far into the districts below them. This was
subsequent to the existence of man, since the mud and gravel
produced by the grinding down of the mountain sides during
this period, and its stratification over the plains, are found to
cover the remains of man and his works, and, therefore, to be
of a later epoch.

This second glacialization, and the arrangement of the
wash, are suggested as forming a line of separation between
the palaeolithic period, when man used rude stone weapons,
and the neolithic period, when smooth and polished instru-
ments were manufactured, and, in a general sense, marking
the time when the great mammalia disappeared from the
northern and western parts of Europe.

Among the principal geological changes which occurred
after the appearance of man in Europe, our author enumer-
ates the subsidence of an area of land which connected Sicily
with Crete and Northern Africa north of the Sahara; the
formation of the Straits of Gibraltar ; the excavation of the
valleys of Northern and Eastern France; the separation of
the coasts of France and England, in the region about Dover
and Calais, and that of the Isle of Wight from the main land;
the formation of a great part of the Bristol Channel ; a con-
siderable upheaval of the Scandinavian peninsula and Den-
mark ; the uprise of the Desert of Sahara, in Africa, after the
second extension of the Alpine glaciers. 10 A, SejiL, 440.

MAN IN THE TERTIARY PERIOD.

In a work on the geology of France, published in 18G8, the
author, M. Raulin, took strong ground against the authentic-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 181

ity of certain asserted flint implements found in the fresh-
water limestone (lower miocene) of Beauce, and which had
been claimed to indicate the existence of man in France dur-
ing the tertiary period. This gentleman now takes pains to
apologize for his skepticism as previously expressed, in con-
sequence of the careful examination to which he has lately
submitted both these specimens and the locality where they
occur. He now considers the fact as established indisputably
that the genus ho?no, or man, did really exist at the time
mentioned, and that we may assume as proved that it ex-
tended through at least five successive faunas, viz. : the lime-
stone of Beauce, or the lower miocene, the Falun, the Tou-
raine, the pliocene or diluvium, and the modern epoch. While",
however, entirely satisfied of the human origin of these early
remaius, he by no means assents to the idea that they be-
longed to the present species of man, but thinks that the ex-
istence of these remains, through such a range of formations,
proves unquestionably that their makers must have possessed
characteristics in structure of special peculiarity ; and since
the genus rhinoceros occurs in these same five successive
faunas, represented**in each by distinct and successive spe-
cies, which, whether evolved one from the other, or the sub-
ject of as many distinct creations, yet exhibit strongly-
marked differences, he suspects that the species of the genus
man in all probability also varied in like manner. M. Raulin
expressly desires that his remarks on this subject may not
be taken as asserting a belief in the transformation of these
different species of man one from another, or as to the de-
scent of the older species from a common stock with that of
the primitive monkey ; but he thinks that, as we have no
means of judging the characteristics of the tertiary man ex-
cepting by the rude implements he has left, should his re-
mains ever be discovered, the present suggestions on his part
will be thoroughly substantiated. 1 B, August 14, 152.

WEAVIXG AMONG LAKE-DWELLEES.

An interesting communication was presented by Dr. Wei-
gert, before an industrial society in Prussia, upon the products
of spinning and weaving discovered in the pile dwellings of
Switzerland, in which he showed that even in the stone period
flax was cultivated in large quantity, and worked up in the

182 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

most varied fabrics, including the making of thread, ropes,
etc. Remains of spinning-wheels of stone and clay are very-
abundant, as also the relics of the manufactured articles
themselves. Plaited fabrics, which served as mats, coverlets,
and Malls, showed the extended use of this branch of manu-
facture. The remains of spindles proved conclusively that
the art of weaving was known to these people, and that they
used a loom with the chain standing vertically instead of
horizontally. An important conclusion was derived from this
fact by the author in regard to the development of civiliza-
tion on the part of these people; since of the two methods,
namely, whether the chain is horizontal or vertical, the former
has been peculiar to India and Egypt from the earliest period,
while the latter was used among the Greco-Italian nations, a
proof that the European culture was not influenced by Africa
and Asia until it had itself made considerable progress. 14
C 9 CXCVIIL, 308.

SHELL-HEAPS IX NEW BRUNSWICK.

Of late years many discoveries have been made in regard
to the habits and characteristics of the jflborigines inhabiting
the coasts of North America prior to the time of Columbus
by careful examination of the artificial heaps of refuse shells,
bones, etc., accumulated in the vicinity of their villages. The
published researches of Professor Wyraan and others have
proved full of interest; and as the subject continues to ex-
cite the attention of American archaeologists, w r e doubt not
that much now hidden will yet be brought to light. As these
deposits are usually on or very near the sea, they are much
exposed to the wearing of the waves ; indeed, their discovery
is usually due to exposure of a section by this influence. For
this reason, it is of importance that the examinations in ques-
tion should be prosecuted before the heaps have entirely dis-
appeared, as a large proportion will probably not outlive the
next half century. "We learn that a careful search on the
shores of Kent and Northumberland counties, on the eastern
coast of New Brunswick, has shown that, in consequence of
the wearing away of the soft sandstone shale of the coast for
many rods, all traces of the shell deposits, believed to have
once existed in abundance, have now entirely vanished.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 183

PKE-HTSTORIC ENGRAVINGS ON BONE.

Many of our readers are familiar with the magnificent
work of Messrs. Lartet and Christy, entitled "Reliquiae Aqui-
tania?," principally embracing illustrations and descriptions
of the remarkable relics of pre-historic times found in the cav-
erns of Aquitaine and other parts of France. It is among
these remains, for instance, that occur the curious engrav-
ings, by men of the reindeer period, of various animals with
which they were contemporaneous, the most remarkable be-
ing one of what is believed to be intended to represent the
hairy mammoth of that period. Quite recently other remains
of a similar character have been brought to light from the
same locality, one of the most noticeable being an engraving
on a reindeer's horn, representing a male bison pursued by a
naked man, the latter grasping the animal by the tail with
one hand, and with the other plunging a lance into its body.
The drawing of the man is said to be the best illustration of
the " humanity" of the period that has hitherto been discov-
ered. The absence of clothing is believed to prove that he
habitually went naked. The head is brachycephalic, with
hair standing stiffly on the cranium, and there is a short,
pointed beard on the chin. 3 C\October 8, 973.

TRANSMISSIBILITY OF INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES IN ENGLAND.

At a late meeting of the Statistical Society of London, ac-
cording to Nature, Mr. Hyde* Clarke read a paper upon the
" Transmissibility of Intellectual Qualities in England." As
one test of this question, he took the statistics of writers of
books in the " Biographia Britannica," and ascertained that
of 2000 authors, 750 were born in country districts and 1250
in towns. Examining the towns and the distribution in
them, 333 were allotted to London, 73 to Edinburgh, and 53
to Dublin. The largest numbers beyond these were found
in cathedral and colleg-iate cities. The deductions he drew
were, that intellectual activity is distributed unequally, but
that it is more among the town or more highly educated pop-
ulation than among the rural. He pointed out that the larger
the concentrated educated population, the larger is the intel-
lectual development ; and he referred to the like examples of
Greece, Rome, and modern Europe, where the same law is to

184 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

be traced. The great modern centres of industry in England
occupy a low relative position in the list, and are scarcely to
be noticed, but they are now beginning to contribute. He
affirmed that the literary class was produced from the edu-
cated class, and not from the illiterate classes. While no ed-
ucational effort will produce men of great genius, he inferred
that literary attainments are in relation to literary culture,
or the culture of the educated classes ; and that, by extend-
ing education to other classes of the population, the intel-
lectual capacity of the community will be extended and prop-
agated within certain limits. 12 A, June 22, 154.

ANTIQUITY OF THE CAT.

In a communication to the Academy of Sciences of Paris
Mr. Lenormant calls attention to the fact that the common
cat was introduced into Egypt at a comparatively late pe-
riod; so much so, indeed, that it is not mentioned at any
time in the Bible, and it is believed to be without a generic
name in Hebrew. It was unknown to the Assyrians and
Babylonians, and in their peculiar nomenclature the lion and
the panther were referred to the dogs for want of a different
point of comparison among their domestic animals. It was
not until the Semite period that we find any pictorial illus-
trations of this animal. Tardy as was its introduction, how-
ever, into Egypt, it seems to have been still later in getting
into Greece and Borne, delineations of it being entirely want-
ing on the monuments of these countries. Its place as an
exterminator of rats was supplied among the Greeks by the
fitch-marten, or European polecat, while the Romans made
use of another species of weasel for the same purpose. Ac-
cording to Professor Pictet, the names of the cat, in all the
European languages, do not belong to the earlier period of
the Aryan language, but are of a recent date, and derive
their origin from the Latin catus. As a domestic animal,
nevertheless, the cat was of decided antiquity in India, even
if unknown to the primitive Aryans. G J3,JVbv. 21, 738.

ANTIQUITY OF THE PIG.

According to Mr. Lenormant, the pig was not known as a
domestic animal in the primitive civilization of Egypt. It is
not mentioned in the text either of the ancient or of the mid-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 185

die empire, while figures of it are entirely wanting on the
monuments of these two great periods of Egyptian culture.
At that time, however, the pig, in its wild state, must "have
been abundant in the marshes of Lower Egypt, where it still
occurs, and supplies food to many of the Mussulman fellahs,
in spite of the prohibitory precepts of the Koran. The lack
of figures of the wild boar in the ancient Egyptian monu-
ments is perhaps to be explained by the idea of absolute
impurity which the Egyptian religion attached to the wild
and domestic pig preventing them from considering it as
either game to be pursued or flesh to-be eaten. But at a
later period of Egyptian culture the animal makes its appear-
ance in the monuments of the country, although not prior to
the time of the eighteenth dynasty, during which drawings
of pigs were represented upon the rural scenes, and painted
upon the walls of the tombs. 6 J5, Dec. 12, 849 ; Dec. 19, 952.

RATS IX THE LACCADIVE ISLANDS.

Our readers may be perhaps aware of the efforts made in
the French West Indies to exterminate or reduce the num-
bers of poisonous serpents abounding in those islands, prin-
cipally by the introduction of the mungoose, and by allowing
the common hog to run wild. A similar attempt at antag-
onizing an inconvenient development of animal life, in the
form of droves of rats, has lately taken place in the Laccadive
Islands, a group situated in latitude 12 north and longitude
2 east. These are coral islands, in which the rats were not
indigenous, but were introduced by their escaping from cer-
tain vessels wrecked on the shores. They have now multi-
plied to an enormous extent, and have become most incon-
venient pests. On one of the islands, where a few years ago
thirty or forty thousand eggs of gulls could be gathered in
a few hours, the birds have been entirely exterminated or
driven away by their four-footed enemies.

The use of dogs being inadmissible on account of the re-
ligious prejudices of the native inhabitants, the experiment
was made of transporting fifty mungoose, which were placed
on some of the islands, and fifty East Indian snakes, which
were introduced on others, the two not being brought to-
gether on account of their mutual antipathy. It is expected
that both will multiply in the course of a few years so as to

186 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

thin out or exterminate the rats ; and, as the serpents are
perfectly harmless, it is not believed that their presence in
any number will be at all injurious, especially as in the ab-
sence of abundant prey they would starve out in a short
time. The mungoose again, being a conspicuous animal, can
be easily reduced in number or entirely destroyed when their
services cease to be of use, their habits also being such as to
keep them more readily under the eye and control of man,
thereby enabling him to destroy them at pleasure. 2* A,
1871, August 5, 77,

PRE-HISTORIC HORSE.

According to Professor Owen, who has examined animal
remains from the cavern of Bruniquel, the human bones show
most affinity with the Celtic types, the cranium being oval
and rather dolicocephalous than brachycephalous in general
proportion. The cranial capacity corresponds to that of un-
educated Europeans of Celtic origin, and exceeds that of the
average of Australian aborigines.

Professor Owen, referring to certain carvings on the ani-
mal bones accompanying the remains, says that some of them
are pictures of the heads of horses, and show much artistic
skill. They represent an animal with short pointed ears, the
stallions having beard-like hairs. The tails of the horses also
appear to have been short, and furnished with long hairs to
their base instead of having these hairs form a kind of tuft
nearer the end of the tail. Professor Owen finds no evidence
any where of an aboriginal wild horse resembling that of the
present day, no remains of the kind existing in any museum;
and it is probable that the delineations of the cave horse of
Bruniquel represent all that we are likely to know of the
form of the primitive stock from which the present horse is
descended. 4 D, L., 423.

MONSTROSITY IN A HORSE'S HOOF.

Some of our readers may be interested in an account of a
curious monstrosity in the hoof of a horse, as reported in the
Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. In this
animal a supernumerary digit was formed on each fore foot,
incased in an asymmetrical hoof, a similar condition occur-
ring on the hind foot, but with less regularity. This speci-

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 187

men recalls very vividly the peculiar condition of the hoof in
the extinct genus Hipparion, which, according to many writ-
ers, is one of the original ancestors of the genus to which the
modern horse belongs. 12 A, November 16, 394.

VISION OF THE YOUNG MOLE.

It is a fact well known to naturalists that in many cases
where a full-grown animal is marked by the absence of cer-
tain organs or appendages found in the majority of its class,
they exist in a normal condition in the fetal stage. This is
shown in the occurrence of teeth in the jaws of the young-
whale (which are totally wanting after birth), the incisor
teeth of the fetal rodent, the existence of eyes on both sides
of the head in the young flounder, etc. A new instance of
this general principle has been recently announced in regard
to the European mole, the adult of which is usually consid-
ered to be blind. The fetal mole, however, according to Mr.
Lee, in a late paper, is endowed with organs of vision, which
at the time of birth are of considerable perfection, but in ad-
vancing age certain changes take place in the base of the
skull, which terminate in the destruction of the most impor-
tant structures on which the enjoyment of the sense of sight
depends. 5 A, October, 1810, 446.

NEW-BORN HIPPOPOTAMUS.

The female hippopotamus at the Zoological Gardens of
London not long since gave birth to a young one, which, we
regret to say, died a few days afterward, making the eighth
case in which births of this animal have occurred in Europe
all of them dying, with a single exception, before reaching
maturity. This one, born in Amsterdam, was almost equally
unfortunate, as it was destroyed many years ago at the burn-
ing of the Crystal Palace in New York. A post-mortem ex-
amination of the case first mentioned showed that it must
have had chronic peritonitis before birth, as its stomach and
liver were adherent to the peritoneum. 20 A, March 4, 253.

DECIDUOUS NATURE OF THE RHINOCEROS'S HORN.

The statement that the horn of the rhinoceros is deciduous,
or, at least, can be reproduced when accidentally lost, has
been confirmed lately at the Zoological Gardens in London.

188 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

One of the animals, a male Indian rhinoceros, had been in the
habit of trying to raise a transverse bar keeping him off from
the pen of the female, and this was attempted at one time
with so great violence as to tear the horn entirely off. Con-
siderable loss of blood ensued, which, however, was soon
stopped, and the surface healed. Soon after indications were
observed of the formation of a new horn, which, at the date
of the account, had already attained a height of one and a
half inches. The old horn was about twelve inches high,
and its base eight and a half inches in the long diameter and
five and a half across. 11 A, Jan. 3, 1871, 9.

HABITS OF THE NARWHAL.

The announcement of the presentation to one of the Eng-
lish museums of a narwhal having two tusks instead of the
one usually occurring has elicited some interesting commu-
nications from various parties in reference to the habits of
this animal. Mr. Gray, in Land and Water, states that the
narwhal is gregarious, and quite abundant in the northern
seas, the males and females being usually in separate herds.
They are said to be ground feeders, living mostly upon cut-
tle-fish, their stomachs being commonly full of the remains
of this animal. They, however, feed also upon the different
kinds of true fishes. Mr. Gray thinks that the horns of the
males are used for stirring up the mud while searching for
food as well as for weapons of defense. One observed by
him had a horn eight feet in length, and on being struck he
ran at the boat and drove his horn through its side into the
thwart, where it broke short off, leaving about six inches in
the boat. The flesh is said to be quite good for food, being
tender and of a gamy flavor. It is preferred by the Esqui-
maux to any other kind of food. 2 A, February 11, 104.

SCARCITY OF REMAINS OF THE UPPER JAW OF MARSUPIALS.

A large number of fossil mammals are only known from
the teeth and bone of the lower jaw, these being preserved
when no other trace (of the head at least) remains. This is
especially the case with the small marsupial mammals, found
in the mesozoic rocks of Great Britain, where, out of 10 gen-
era and 25 species, based upon numerous specimens, not more
than half a dozen series of teeth of the upper jaw have been
discovered, and no crania. 5 A, July, 321.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 189

FOSSIL CETACEANS IN HOLLAND.

Much interest has been excited in Europe by the discov-
ery in Holland of extensive beds of remains of cetaceans and
other marine vertebrates, as many as 8 new genera and 16
new species having been secured, together with the walrus
and the remains of seals. The collection is in charge of the
Vicomte du Bus, who is preparing a report for publication.
12 A, November 16, 392.

FOSSIL WHALE IN CANADA.

At a meeting of the Natural History Society of Montreal
the discovery was announced, by Mr. Billings, of the nearly
complete skeleton of a fossil whale at Cornwall, Ontario
County, at about 60 feet above the level of the St. Lawrence.
It is believed by Mr. Billings that this fossil is identical with
one obtained in Vermont by Professor Thompson, in a rail-
way catting about 12 miles south of Burlington, and called
Beluga vermontana. This is closely allied to the white
whale of the St. Lawrence, though differing in some special
points.

SEGUIN COLLECTION OF FOSSIL MAMMALS.

Palaeontologists are aware of a work on the fossil mammals
of South America, published by a Frenchman named Seguin,
and containing descriptions of various species of Megatheri-
um, Megalonyx, Glyptodon, Chlamydotherium,Toxodon, etc.
We learn from a paragraph in our exchanges that this entire
collection one of the finest ever made in the La Plata region
has been offered to the French government on condition
that it will refund the expenses incurred in gathering it, and
defray the carriage to France. We presume that advantage
will be taken of the offer, and the collection be ultimately
carried to Paris. 2 A, August 6, 88.

DUNS ON THE BARER RAPTORIAL BIRDS OF SCOTLAND.

Professor Duns, of Edinburgh, in a paper " On the Rarer
Raptorial Birds of Scotland," presents the following proposi-
tions : 1. That species occur in pairs, after long intervals, in
localities where they have long since ceased to breed, but
where they have been at one time not uncommon. 2. The

190 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

geographical range of stragglers seems to widen with the
lapse of time. 3. Certain species have greatly increased in
recent times over wide districts where they were compara-
tively rare. 4. Year by year the raptorial birds of Scotland
are becoming fewer.

lie remarked also that by a comparison ofSibbald's list of
birds in "Scotia Illustrata," 1684, with other authorities, he
had arrived at the conclusion that most of the larger rapto-
rial birds were rapidly disappearing from Scotland, and that
even the smaller forms, which were common in the southern
and central districts, were yearly becoming rarer. He also
expressed his opinion that both the farmer and the game pre-
server would lose much when, between them, they succeeded
in destroying all the hawks and owls. 12 A, Aug. 24, 333.

VARIATION OF COLOR IN BIRDS WITH THE LOCALITY.

The subject of variation of color in birds, as expressing
specific distinctions, has for a long time occupied the atten-
tion of ornithologists ; and while, with some, the slightest
difference in shade was sufficient to establish a separate spe-
cies, a wide variation is allowed by others without affecting
the idea of specific identity. TVe are gradually, however,
coming to appreciate the influence which external conditions,
such as light or shade, moisture or dryness, varying tempera-
ture, latitude, etc., produce upon color, and so long as the
general pattern remains the same we can allow a great vari-
ation in tint, and even in size, since, as is well known, this
depends largely upon latitude or altitude of birthplace and
residence. As a general rule, it may be said that as we go
southward from a north-temperate latitude, with the increas-
ing temperature and brighter sky the colors are deeper and
the size less ; and, on the other hand, in proceeding northward
and into more clouded atmospheres, the dimensions become
greater, with a decrease in general brilliancy. In sandy or
barren regions the accompanying birds become of a grayish
tint, while in red soils a reddish shade will be appreciable.

Again, in certain regions, the birds exhibit a tendency to
melanism, or a blackening, this being noticeable in Florida,
and more especially in the West India Islands, as compared
with the United States. An instance of this is seen in the
common red-winged blackbird, the female of which, as found

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 191

in the United States, is variegated with brown, yellowish,
and grayish streaks, the male alone being a glossy black,
with red shoulders. A blackbird is found in Cuba, however,
the male of which is undistinguishable from our bird, except-
ing in the smaller size, while the female is of a uniform lus-
trous black, differing only from the male in the absence of
red upon the shoulders. Similar comparative peculiarities
are presented in quite a number of West Indian birds.

MARKS OF DIFFERENCE OF SEX IX EGGS.

It is stated that the eggs of the common hen, as well as
those of many other birds, present certain external character-
istics by means of which it is possible to determine before-
hand the sex to be hatched from them. Thus the " male"
egg has, at its pointed end, small folds and wrinkles, while
the " female" egg is entirely smooth, and well rounded off at
both ends. 10 C, March 1, 1870, 42.

PETREL OIL.

Ornithologists are well aware that certain kinds of sea-fowl
belonging to the petrel family are in the habit of disgorging
a quantity of oil when captured, and that this furnishes in
large part the food with which they supply their young.
Many of these species excavate a burrow in the earth, in
which their single egg is laid, and the young bird, when
hatched, is left for a long time while the parents are abroad
occupied in the business of procuring food. The oil in ques-
tion, according to some, is obtained from dead and floating
cetaceans or fish ; according to others it is a regular secre-
tion. In either case the amount is so great that the inhabit-
ants of the island of St. Kilda are in the habit of hunting the
Fulmar petrel for the purpose of catching it and causing it
to disgorge this oil, which is done by dipping the bill of the
bird into a small leather bag suspended to the waist. The
amount obtained in this way is sufficiently great to furnish
an article of export, and it is suggested that it may probably
possess virtues corresponding to those of the cod-liver oil.
A recent investigation shows that it is soluble in ether, and
much less so in alcohol, and has other reactions which place
it side by side with the cod-liver oil. 17 A, December, 187.

192 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

RATIO BETWEEN THE SIZE OF THE CHICK AND THE EGG.

According to a German author, the chick, at the moment
of escape from the egg, weighs about two thirds as much as
the original egg. Ii\ therefore, it is desirable to have strong
and large chicks, it is necessary to see that only the heaviest
eggs are hatched. The average weight of hens' eggs may be
estimated at about ten to the pound ; some weigh consider-
ably more, and others much less than this proportion. By
pains in selecting large eggs, it will be possible, according to
the usual theory of selection for breeding, to secure a race
of chickens of large size. 9 (7, June, 45.

DODO PIGEON.

A contemporary gives an interesting account of the tooth-
billed or dodo pigeon {Didunculus strigirostris) lately sent to
London from the Samoan Islands, and we may perhaps sup-
plement that account by mentioning the fact that this bird
was first collected by the naturalists of the United States Ex-
ploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes, and described by
Mr. Titian R. Peale, the veteran zoologist. Two specimens
were brought back by Captain Wilkes, one of them now con-
tained in the collections of the National Museum under the
charge of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, the
other belonging to the Museum of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia. The species is, as stated in the arti-
cle referred to, nearly extinct, and will probably be entirely
exterminated in a few years, when it will take its place with
the great auk, the dodo, and many other species that have
disappeared from the surface of the earth within the histor-
ical period. The resemblance of the bill of this bird to that
of the dodo is quite marked, and by studying its character
naturalists were led to refer the giant dodo to the pigeon
family, and not to that of the vultures, as had been previously
suggested.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE OSTRICH.

The ostrich has usually been considered as peculiar to the
continent of Africa, where two species have been recognized,
one belonging to the northern portions, the other to the re-
gions nearer the Cape of Good Hope. Curiously enough,

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 193

these species were for a long time considered to be the same,
and their distinctness was first suggested by the marked dif-
ference in the texture of the egg. In a recent work by Hart-
laub and Finsch on the birds of Eastern Africa, it is shown
that, contrary to the general assumption, the ostrich, proba-
bly that of Northern Africa, if not, indeed, a third species,
was known at a very remote period in Central Asia, and per-
haps even in India; and that at the present time it occurs
wild in Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, where, in fact, it was
mentioned by the earliest writers, among them Herodotus,
Aristotle, Diodorus, etc. 17 (7, 1870, 380.

BREEDING OSTEICHES IX CAPTIVITY.

The many efforts made in Europe to breed ostriches in a
state of captivity have finally resulted in success, the Zoo-
logical Garden of Florence being the happy possessor at the
present time of several healthy young birds. The stock con-
sisted originally of one male bird, and of one old and one
young female. One set of eggs was laid in 1868, but these
did not hatch. In March of 1869 the laying commenced
anew, and first one female and then the other deposited her
eggs in the same nest until the number amounted to ten.
These were then brooded upon in the daytime by the male,
and in his absence occasionally by the older female, the
younger one showing great reluctance to approach the nest
excepting at night and in the colder weather, when the eggs
were divided among the three, each brooding over its share.
In the morning, however, when the females left their nests,
the male bird drew to himself, with his bill, the eggs which
had been covered by the older female. The younger one,
however, always took up a position so far from the others
that the male bird could not reach her eggs, and the attend-
ants of the museum were obliged to push them near to him.
The brooding lasted until the 27th of June, when the female
remained quietly sitting on the eggs, the male running around
the park in a very vicious manner. In a short time five os-
triches made their appearance around the old bird, the re-
maining eggs producing nothing. One of the five young
birds died, apparently from overeating, but the remaining
four were in good condition at the latest report, and likely to
attain maturity. Should it be found practicable to raise os-

I

194 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

triches in a state of domestication without too much trouble
and expense, the broods may be rendered of much pecuniary
value, since the plumes alone of the male birds will bring a
price so great as to yield a handsome return, and the remain-,
ing feathers of the body generally of both sexes can be turned
to economical account. How far ostriches can be utilized in
civilized countries as animals of draught and beasts of bur-
den, as they are said to be employed in Africa, remains to be
tried. 1 C, xxxi.,459.

BREEDING OF OSTRICHES IN CAPTIVITY.

The preceding article has reference to the subject of the
breeding of ostriches in captivity in Europe, and we are re-
minded that this is a practice of common occurrence in South
Africa, where large numbers are kept for the purpose of se-
curing successive crops of their feathers, and are inclosed in
areas of fifteen to twenty acres, encircled by low stone walls.
Their eggs are usually hatched artificially by being kept at
a temperature of about 100 degrees by the aid of an oil lamp.
The long white feathers of the wings of the male birds are
the most valuable, bringing from $150 to $200 a pound, eighty
feathers usually making up this weight. The feathers from
the wild birds are, however, considered more valuable than
those taken on the farms.

marey's apparatus for recording the flight OF BIRDS.

Much interest was excited by the account given a year or
two ago by Professor Marey of the phenomena of night in
birds and insects, as illustrated by apparatus devised by him,
which actually traced on paper the curve described by the
point of the wing in flying. The professor, during the dis-
turbances caused by the late war in France, was steadily oc-
cupied in continuing his researches, and presented to the
Academy of Sciences, some months since, a continuation of
his series of communications, in which he discusses the move-
ment which the action of the wing produces upon the body
of the bird itself. He shows that the progression of the bird
when flying, in consequence of the beating of its wings,